Mojo🔥 changelog

This is a list of changes to the Mojo language, standard library, and tools.

To check your current version, run mojo --version. To update the version of Mojo for your project with the magic package manager, follow the instructions in Update a package to update the max package.

v25.3 nightly

This version is still a work in progress.

See how to install the nightly release.

✨ Highlights

• Parts of the Mojo standard library continue to be progressively open sourced! Packages that are open sourced now include:

  • subprocess
  • complex
  • buffer
  • compile
  • gpu
  • runtime
  • benchmark
  • algorithm

• Parts of the Kernel library continue to be progressively open sourced! Packages that are open sourced now include:

  • register

• Trait compositions are now supported via the & syntax. A trait composition combines two traits into one logical trait whose constraint set is the union of the constraint sets of the two original traits.

Language changes

• The Mojo compiler now warns about obsolete use of mut self in initializers, please switch over to fn __init__(out self) instead.

• The syntax for adding attributes to an __mlir_op is now limited to inherent attributes (those defined by the op definition). Most users will not need to attach other kinds of attributes, and this helps guard against typos and mojo code getting outdated when the dialect changes.

• def functions now require type annotations on arguments, and treat a missing return type as returning None. Previously these defaulted to the object type which led to a variety of problems. Support for object is being removed until we have time to investigate a proper replacement.

• The Mojo compiler now warns about stores to values that are never used, e.g.: x = foo(); x = bar() will warn about the first assignment to x because it is overwritten. You can generally address this by deleting dead code, or by assigning to _ instead: _ = foo(); x = bar(). You may also encounter this in variable declarations, e.g. var x = 0; ...; x = foo(). In this case, change the variable to being declared as uninitialized, e.g. var x: Int. You may also silence this warning entirely for a variable by renaming it to start with an underscore, e.g. _x.

• Mojo can now use user-declared __merge_with__ dunder methods to merge values if different types in ternary operations. This has been adopted to allow pointers to work naturally with the ternary operator, for example var x = one_pointer if cond else other_pointer.

• Auto-parameterization now extends to struct metatypes. For example, this declaration fn foo[M: __type_of(StringLiteral[_])] will auto-parameterize on the unbound parameter of StringLiteral.

Standard library changes

String types in Mojo got several significant improvements:

• The String type no longer copies data from StringLiteral and StaticString since they are known-static-constant values. This allows us to make construction from these values be implicit, which improves ergonomics and performance together. It also implements the "small string optimization", which avoids heap allocation for common short strings. On a 64-bit system, String can hold up to 23 bytes inline. Its copy constructor is now O(1), performing string data copy lazily on mutation.

• Set now conforms to Copyable so it can be used in other collection elements.

• The types StringSlice and StaticString are now part of the prelude, there is no need to import them anymore. These are useful for code that just needs a "view" of string data, not to own and mutate it.

• The StringLiteral type has been moved to a more reliable "dependent type" design where the value of the string is carried in a parameter instead of a stored member. This defines away a category of compiler crashes when working with StringLiteral by making it impossible to express that. As a consequence of this change, many APIs should switch to using StaticString instead of StringLiteral.

• String supports a new String(unsafe_uninit_length=x) constructor and str.resize(unsafe_uninit_length=x) for clients that want to allocate space that they intend to fill in with custom unsafe initialization patterns. The String(ptr=x, length=y) constructor has been removed.

• String supports working with legacy C APIs that assume "nul" termination, but the details have changed: String is now no longer implicitly nul-terminated, which means that it is incorrect to assume that str.unsafe_ptr() will return a nul-terminated string. For that, use the str.unsafe_cstr_ptr() method. It now requires the string to be mutable in order to make nul-termination lazy on demand. This improves performance for strings that are not passed to legacy APIs.

• The List type has been improved similarly to String to reduce inconsistency and enable power-user features, including removing adding List(unsafe_uninit_length=x) and list.resize(unsafe_uninit_size=n) methods avoid initialized memory that the caller plans to overwrite.

The following traits have been removed in favor of trait composition: EqualityComparableCollectionElement, RepresentableCollectionElement, TestableCollectionElement, Testable, StringableIdentifiable, IntervalPayload.

• Span now has a swap_elements method which takes two indices and swaps them within the span.

• Pointer now has get_immutable() to return a new Pointer with the same underlying data but an ImmutableOrigin.

• You can now forward a VariadicPack that is Writable to a writer using WritableVariadicPack:

from utils.write import WritableVariadicPack

fn print_message[*Ts: Writable](*messages: *Ts):
    print("message:", WritableVariadicPack(messages), "[end]")

x = 42
print_message("'x = ", x, "'")

from utils.write import WritableVariadicPack

fn print_message[*Ts: Writable](*messages: *Ts):
    print("message:", WritableVariadicPack(messages), "[end]")

x = 42
print_message("'x = ", x, "'")

message: 'x = 42' [end]

message: 'x = 42' [end]

In this example the variadic pack is buffered to the stack in the print call along with the extra arguments, before doing a single syscall to write to stdout.

• Removed unroll utility. Now simply use @parameter on for-loops.

from utils.loop import unroll

# Before
@always_inline
@parameter
fn foo[i: Int]():
    body_logic[i]()
unroll[foo, iteration_range]()

# After
@parameter
for i in range(iteration_range):
    body_logic[i]()

from utils.loop import unroll

# Before
@always_inline
@parameter
fn foo[i: Int]():
    body_logic[i]()
unroll[foo, iteration_range]()

# After
@parameter
for i in range(iteration_range):
    body_logic[i]()

• The is_power_of_two(x) function in the bit package is now a method on Int, UInt and SIMD.

• The constrained[cond, string]() function now accepts multiple strings that are printed concatenated on failure, so you can use: constrained[cond, "hello: ", String(n), ": world"]() which is more comptime efficient and somewhat more ergonomic than using string concatenation.

• pathlib.Path.write_text now accepts a Writable argument instead of a Stringable argument. This makes the function more efficient by removing a String allocation.

• Added pathlib.Path.write_bytes which enables writing raw bytes to a file.

• Added os.path.split_extension to split a path into its root and extension.

• Added os.path.is_absolute to check if a given path is absolute or not.

• PythonObject is no longer implicitly constructible from tuple or list literals, e.g. var x : PythonObject = [1, 2, "foo"] is no longer accepted. Instead, please use named constructors like var x = Python.list(1, 2, "foo"). We hope to re-enable the syntax in the future as the standard library matures.

• One can now specify the consistency used in atomic operations with the default being sequential consistency.

GPU changes

• debug_assert in AMD GPU kernels now behaves the same as NVIDIA, printing the thread information and variadic args passed after the condition:

from gpu.host import DeviceContext

fn kernel():
    var x = 1
    debug_assert(x == 2, "x should be 2 but is: ", x)

def main():
    with DeviceContext() as ctx:
        ctx.enqueue_function[kernel](grid_dim=2, block_dim=2)

from gpu.host import DeviceContext

fn kernel():
    var x = 1
    debug_assert(x == 2, "x should be 2 but is: ", x)

def main():
    with DeviceContext() as ctx:
        ctx.enqueue_function[kernel](grid_dim=2, block_dim=2)

Running mojo run -D ASSERT=all [filename] will output:

At /tmp/test.mojo:5:17: block: [0,0,0] thread: [0,0,0] Assert Error: x should be 2 but is: 1
At /tmp/test.mojo:5:17: block: [0,0,0] thread: [1,0,0] Assert Error: x should be 2 but is: 1
At /tmp/test.mojo:5:17: block: [1,0,0] thread: [0,0,0] Assert Error: x should be 2 but is: 1
At /tmp/test.mojo:5:17: block: [1,0,0] thread: [1,0,0] Assert Error: x should be 2 but is: 1

At /tmp/test.mojo:5:17: block: [0,0,0] thread: [0,0,0] Assert Error: x should be 2 but is: 1
At /tmp/test.mojo:5:17: block: [0,0,0] thread: [1,0,0] Assert Error: x should be 2 but is: 1
At /tmp/test.mojo:5:17: block: [1,0,0] thread: [0,0,0] Assert Error: x should be 2 but is: 1
At /tmp/test.mojo:5:17: block: [1,0,0] thread: [1,0,0] Assert Error: x should be 2 but is: 1

• Removed deprecated DeviceContext methods copy_sync and memset_sync.

• Add Variant.is_type_supported method. (PR #4057) Example:

    def takes_variant(mut arg: Variant):
        if arg.is_type_supported[Float64]():
            arg = Float64(1.5)
    def main():
        var x = Variant[Int, Float64](1)
        takes_variant(x)
        if x.isa[Float64]():
            print(x[Float64]) # 1.5

    def takes_variant(mut arg: Variant):
        if arg.is_type_supported[Float64]():
            arg = Float64(1.5)
    def main():
        var x = Variant[Int, Float64](1)
        takes_variant(x)
        if x.isa[Float64]():
            print(x[Float64]) # 1.5

• The type parameter of SIMD has been renamed to dtype.

• The Pointer.address_of(...) and UnsafePointer.address_of(...) functions have been deprecated. Please use the Pointer(to=...) and UnsafePointer(to=...) constructors instead. Conceptually, this is saying "please initialize a Pointer (a reference, if you will) to some other address in memory. In the future, these address_of functions will be removed.

• The logger package is now open sourced (along with its commit history)! This helps continue our commitment to progressively open sourcing more of the standard library.

Tooling changes

• Fixed SIMD boolean display in debugger: SIMD boolean values now display correctly with proper bit extraction.

• Improved language server performance: The language server now avoids parsing more than it needs to, improving performance across the board.

Mojo Compiler

• The Mojo compiler is now able to interpret all arithmetic operations from the index dialect that are used in methods of Int and UInt types. That allows users to finally compute constants at compile time:

alias a: Int = 1000000000
alias b: Int = (5 * a) // 2

alias a: Int = 1000000000
alias b: Int = (5 * a) // 2

previously compiler would throw error "cannot fold operation".

• New --emit-llvm option to the mojo build command that allows users to emit LLVM IR. When --emit-llvm is specified, the build process will: compile mojo code to LLVM IR, save the IR to a .ll file (using the same name as the input file), and print the IR to stdout for immediate inspection.

❌ Removed

• The SIMD.roundeven() method has been removed from the standard library. This functionality is now handled by the round() function.

• Error messages about the obsolete borrowed and inout keywords, as well as the obsolete -> Int as name syntax has been removed.

• The StringableCollectionElement trait has been removed in favor of WritableCollectionElement.

• The object type has been removed.

• utils.numerics.ulp has been removed. Use the same ulp function from the math package instead.

• The int free function has been removed. Use the Int constructor instead.

🛠️ Fixed

• #3510 - PythonObject doesn't handle large UInt64 correctly.

• #3847 - Count leading zeros can't be used on SIMD at compile time.

• #4198 - Apple M4 is not properly detected with sys.is_apple_silicon().

• #3662 - Code using llvm.assume cannot run at compile time.

• #4273 - count_leading_zeros doesn't work for vectors with size > 1 at comptime.

• #4320 - Intermittent miscompilation with bytecode imported traits.

• #4281 - MAX does not support RTX 5000-series GPUs.

• #4163 - Corner case in initializers.

• #4360 - Fix constructor emission for parameterized types conforming to a trait composition.

• #4362 - Function call with IntLiteral incorrectly eliminated despite side-effects.

• #4431 - [BUG] Python.evaluate doesn't handle nul termination correctly.

v25.2 (2025-03-25)

✨ Highlights

• Check out the new GPU basics section of the Mojo Manual and the Get started with GPU programming with Mojo and the MAX Driver tutorial for a guide to getting started with GPU programming in Mojo!

• Some APIs in the gpu package were enhanced to simplify working with GPUs.

  • If you're executing a GPU kernel only once, you can now skip compiling it first before enqueueing it, and pass it directly to DeviceContext.enqueue_function().

  • The three separate methods on DeviceContext for asynchronously copying buffers between host and GPU memory have been combined to single overloaded enqueue_copy() method, and the three separate methods for synchronous copies have been combined into an overloaded copy_sync() method.

  • The gpu.shuffle module has been renamed to gpu.warp to better reflect its purpose.

  • The gpu package API documentation has been expanded, and API documentation for the layout package is underway, beginning with core types, functions, and traits.

  See the Standard library changes section of the changelog for more information.

• The legacy borrowed/inout keywords and -> T as foo syntax are no longer supported and now generate a compiler error. Please move to read/mut/out argument syntax instead. See Argument conventions in the Mojo Manual for more information.

• The standard library has many changes related to strings. Notably, the Char type has been renamed to Codepoint, to better capture its intended purpose of storing a single Unicode codepoint. Additionally, related method and type names have been updated as well. See Standard library changes for more details.

• Support has been added for 128- and 256-bit signed and unsigned integers. This includes the DType aliases DType.int128, DType.uint128, DType.int256, and DType.uint256, as well as SIMD support for 128- and 256-bit signed and unsigned element types. Note that this exposes capabilities (and limitations) of LLVM, which may not always provide high performance for these types and may have missing operations like divide, remainder, etc. See Standard library changes for more details.

Language changes

• References to aliases in struct types with unbound (or partially) bound parameters sets are now allowed as long as the referenced alias doesn't depend on any unbound parameters:

  struct StructWithParam[a: Int, b: Int]:
    alias a1 = 42
    alias a2 = a+1
  
  fn test():
    _ = StructWithParams.a1 # ok
    _ = StructWithParams[1].a2 # ok
    _ = StructWithParams.a2 # error, 'a' is unbound.

  struct StructWithParam[a: Int, b: Int]:
    alias a1 = 42
    alias a2 = a+1
  
  fn test():
    _ = StructWithParams.a1 # ok
    _ = StructWithParams[1].a2 # ok
    _ = StructWithParams.a2 # error, 'a' is unbound.

• The Mojo compiler now warns about @parameter for with large loop unrolling factor (>1024 by default), which can lead to long compilation time and large generated code size. Set --loop-unrolling-warn-threshold to change default value to a different threshold or to 0 to disable the warning.

• The Mojo compile-time interpreter can now handle many more LLVM intrinsics, including ones that return floating point values. This allows functions like round() to be constant folded when used in a compile-time context.

• The Mojo compiler now has only one compile-time interpreter. It had two previously: one to handle a few cases that were important for dependent types in the parser (but which also had many limitations), and the primary one that ran at "instantiation" time which is fully general. This was confusing and caused a wide range of bugs. We've now removed the special case parse-time interpreter, replacing it with a more general solution for dependent types. This change should be invisible to most users, but should resolve a number of long-standing bugs and significantly simplifies the compiler implementation, allowing us to move faster.

Standard library changes

• Optional, Span, and InlineArray have been added to the prelude. You now no longer need to explicitly import these types to use them in your program.

• GPU programming changes:

  • You can now skip compiling a GPU kernel first before enqueueing it, and pass it directly to DeviceContext.enqueue_function():

    from gpu.host import DeviceContext
    
    fn func():
        print("Hello from GPU")
    
    with DeviceContext() as ctx:
        ctx.enqueue_function[func](grid_dim=1, block_dim=1)

    from gpu.host import DeviceContext
    
    fn func():
        print("Hello from GPU")
    
    with DeviceContext() as ctx:
        ctx.enqueue_function[func](grid_dim=1, block_dim=1)

    However, if you're reusing the same function and parameters multiple times, this incurs some overhead of around 50-500 nanoseconds per enqueue. So you can still compile the function first with DeviceContext.compile_function() and pass it to DeviceContext.enqueue_function() like this:

    with DeviceContext() as ctx:
      var compiled_func = ctx.compile_function[func]()
      # Multiple kernel launches with the same function/parameters
      ctx.enqueue_function(compiled_func, grid_dim=1, block_dim=1)
      ctx.enqueue_function(compiled_func, grid_dim=1, block_dim=1)

    with DeviceContext() as ctx:
      var compiled_func = ctx.compile_function[func]()
      # Multiple kernel launches with the same function/parameters
      ctx.enqueue_function(compiled_func, grid_dim=1, block_dim=1)
      ctx.enqueue_function(compiled_func, grid_dim=1, block_dim=1)

  • The following methods on DeviceContext:

    • enqueue_copy_to_device()
    • enqueue_copy_from_device()
    • enqueue_copy_device_to_device()

    have been combined to a single overloaded enqueue_copy() method. Additionally, the methods:

    • copy_to_device_sync()
    • copy_from_device_sync()
    • copy_device_to_device_sync()

    have been combined into an overloaded copy_sync() method.

  • The gpu.shuffle module has been renamed to gpu.warp to better reflect its purpose. For example:

    import gpu.warp as warp
    
    var val0 = warp.shuffle_down(x, offset)
    var val1 = warp.broadcast(x)

    import gpu.warp as warp
    
    var val0 = warp.shuffle_down(x, offset)
    var val1 = warp.broadcast(x)

• Support has been added for 128- and 256-bit signed and unsigned integers.

  • The following aliases have been added to the DType struct: DType.int128, DType.uint128, DType.int256, and DType.uint256.

  • The SIMD type now supports 128- and 256-bit signed and unsigned element types. Note that this exposes capabilities (and limitations) of LLVM, which may not always provide high performance for these types and may have missing operations like divide, remainder, etc.

  • The following Scalar aliases for 1-element SIMD values have been added: Int128, UInt128, Int256, and UInt256.

• String and friends:

  • The Char type has been renamed to Codepoint, to better capture its intended purpose of storing a single Unicode codepoint. Additionally, related method and type names have been updated as well, including:

    • StringSlice.chars() and String.chars() to StringSlice.codepoints() and String.codepoints(), respectively

    • StringSlice.char_slices() and String.char_slices() to StringSlice.codepoint_slices() and String.codepoint_slices(), respectively

    • CharsIter to CodepointsIter

    • Char.unsafe_decode_utf8_char() to Codepoint.unsafe_decode_utf8_codepoint()

    • Made the iterator type returned by the string codepoint_slices() methods public as CodepointSliceIter.

  • StringSlice now supports several additional methods moved from String. The existing String methods have been updated to instead call the corresponding new StringSlice methods:

    • center()
    • is_ascii_digit()
    • is_ascii_printable()
    • islower()
    • isupper()
    • ljust()
    • lower()
    • rjust()
    • split()
    • upper()

  • Added a StringSlice.is_codepoint_boundary() method for querying if a given byte index is a boundary between encoded UTF-8 codepoints.

  • StringSlice.__getitem__(Slice) now raises an error if the provided slice start and end positions do not fall on a valid codepoint boundary. This prevents construction of malformed StringSlice values, which could lead to memory unsafety or undefined behavior. For example, given a string containing multi-byte encoded data, like:

    str_slice = "Hi👋!"

    str_slice = "Hi👋!"

    and whose in-memory and decoded data looks like:

    String	Hi👋!
    Codepoint Characters	H	i	👋				!
    Codepoints	72	105	128075				33
    Bytes	72	105	240	159	145	139	33
    Index	0	1	2	3	4	5	6

    attempting to slice bytes [3-5) with str_slice[3:5] would previously erroneously produce a malformed StringSlice as output that did not correctly decode to anything:

    String	invalid
    Codepoint Characters	invalid
    Codepoints	invalid
    Bytes	159	145
    Index	0	1

    The same statement will now raise an error informing the user that their indices are invalid.

  • The StringLiteral.get[value]() method, which converts a compile-time value of Stringable type has been changed to a function named get_string_literal[value]().

• Collections:

  • A new IntervalTree data structure has been added to the standard library. This is a tree data structure that allows for efficient range queries.

  • Added an iterator to LinkedList (PR #4005)

    • LinkedList.__iter__() to create a forward iterator.

    • LinkedList.__reversed__() for a backward iterator.

    var ll = LinkedList[Int](1, 2, 3)
    for element in ll:
      print(element[])

    var ll = LinkedList[Int](1, 2, 3)
    for element in ll:
      print(element[])

  • List.bytecount() has been renamed to List.byte_length() for consistency with the string-like APIs.

  • The InlineArray(unsafe_uninitialized=True) constructor is now spelled InlineArray(uninitialized=True).

• The design of the IntLiteral and FloatLiteral types has been changed to maintain their compile-time-only value as a parameter instead of a stored field. This correctly models that infinite precision literals are not representable at runtime, and eliminates a number of bugs hit in corner cases. This is made possible by enhanced dependent type support in the compiler.

• The Buffer struct has been removed in favor of Span and NDBuffer.

• The round() function is now fixed to perform "round half to even" (also known as "bankers' rounding") instead of "round half away from zero".

• The UnsafePointer.alloc() method has changed to produce pointers with an empty Origin parameter, instead of with MutableAnyOrigin. This mitigates an issue with the any origin parameter extending the lifetime of unrelated local variables for this common method.

• Several more packages are now documented.

  • compile package
  • gpu package
  • layout package is underway, beginning with core types, functions, and traits

• Added a new sys.is_compile_time() function. This enables you to query whether code is being executed at compile time or not. For example:

  from sys import is_compile_time
  
  fn check_compile_time() -> String:
    if is_compile_time():
        return "compile time"
    else:
        return "runtime"
  
  def main():
      alias var0 = check_compile_time()
      var var1 = check_compile_time()
      print("var0 is evaluated at ", var0, " , while var1 is evaluated at ", var1)

  from sys import is_compile_time
  
  fn check_compile_time() -> String:
    if is_compile_time():
        return "compile time"
    else:
        return "runtime"
  
  def main():
      alias var0 = check_compile_time()
      var var1 = check_compile_time()
      print("var0 is evaluated at ", var0, " , while var1 is evaluated at ", var1)

  will print var0 is evaluated at compile time, while var1 is evaluated at runtime.

Tooling changes

• Mojo API documentation generation is now able to display function and struct parameter references inside nested parametric types using names instead of indices. For example, instead of

  
  sort[type: CollectionElement, //, cmp_fn: fn($1|0, $1|0) capturing -> Bool](span: Span[type, origin])
  

  
  sort[type: CollectionElement, //, cmp_fn: fn($1|0, $1|0) capturing -> Bool](span: Span[type, origin])
  

  it now displays

  
  sort[type: CollectionElement, //, cmp_fn: fn(type, type) capturing -> Bool](span: Span[type, origin])
  

  
  sort[type: CollectionElement, //, cmp_fn: fn(type, type) capturing -> Bool](span: Span[type, origin])
  

❌ Removed

• Use of legacy argument conventions like inout and the use of as in named results now produces an error message instead of a warning.

• Direct access to List.size has been removed. Use the public API instead.

  Examples:

  Extending a List:

  base_data = List[Byte](1, 2, 3)
  
  data_list = List[Byte](4, 5, 6)
  ext_data_list = base_data.copy()
  ext_data_list.extend(data_list) # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
  
  data_span = Span(List[Byte](4, 5, 6))
  ext_data_span = base_data.copy()
  ext_data_span.extend(data_span) # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
  
  data_vec = SIMD[DType.uint8, 4](4, 5, 6, 7)
  ext_data_vec_full = base_data.copy()
  ext_data_vec_full.extend(data_vec) # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
  
  ext_data_vec_partial = base_data.copy()
  ext_data_vec_partial.extend(data_vec, count=3) # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

  base_data = List[Byte](1, 2, 3)
  
  data_list = List[Byte](4, 5, 6)
  ext_data_list = base_data.copy()
  ext_data_list.extend(data_list) # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
  
  data_span = Span(List[Byte](4, 5, 6))
  ext_data_span = base_data.copy()
  ext_data_span.extend(data_span) # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
  
  data_vec = SIMD[DType.uint8, 4](4, 5, 6, 7)
  ext_data_vec_full = base_data.copy()
  ext_data_vec_full.extend(data_vec) # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
  
  ext_data_vec_partial = base_data.copy()
  ext_data_vec_partial.extend(data_vec, count=3) # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

  Slicing and extending a list efficiently:

  base_data = List[Byte](1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
  n4_n5 = Span(base_data)[3:5]
  extra_data = Span(List[Byte](8, 10))
  end_result = List[Byte](capacity=len(n4_n5) + len(extra_data))
  end_result.extend(n4_n5)
  end_result.extend(extra_data) # [4, 5, 8, 10]

  base_data = List[Byte](1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
  n4_n5 = Span(base_data)[3:5]
  extra_data = Span(List[Byte](8, 10))
  end_result = List[Byte](capacity=len(n4_n5) + len(extra_data))
  end_result.extend(n4_n5)
  end_result.extend(extra_data) # [4, 5, 8, 10]

• InlinedFixedVector and InlineList have been removed. Instead, use InlineArray when the upper bound is known at compile time. If the upper bound is not known until runtime, use List with the capacity constructor to minimize allocations.

🛠️ Fixed

• #3976 The variance argument in random.randn_float64() and random.randn() has been renamed to standard_deviation so that values are drawn from the correct distribution.

Special thanks

Special thanks to our community contributors: @bgreni, @fnands, @illiasheshyn, @izo0x90, @lydiandy, @martinvuyk, @msaelices, @owenhilyard, @rd4com, @yinonburgansky

v25.1 (2025-02-13)

✨ Highlights

• The legacy borrowed/inout keywords and -> T as foo syntax are deprecated and now generate a compiler warning. Please move to read/mut/out argument syntax instead. See Argument conventions in the Mojo Manual for more information.

• The bool(), float(), int(), and str() functions are deprecated and generate compiler warnings. Please use the Bool(), Float64(), Int(), and String() constructors instead. See Standard library changes for more details.

• The standard library has many changes related to strings. The new Char struct represents a single Unicode character, and includes several methods for categorizing character types. When iterating over the characters of a String with a for loop, you now should use the String.chars() method to provide an iterator of Char values or the String.char_slices() method to provide an iterator of StringSlice instances for each character. StringRef has been removed in favor of StringSlice. And various functionality has moved from String and StringLiteral to the more general StringSlice type. See Standard library changes for more details.

• You can now use SIMD constructors to cast existing SIMD values (including Scalar values) to a different type, though you can still use the SIMD.cast() method to infer the size of the new vector. See Standard library changes for more details.

Language changes

• The legacy borrowed/inout keywords and -> T as foo syntax now generate a warning. Please move to read/mut/out argument syntax instead. See Argument conventions in the Mojo Manual for more information.

• Initializers are now treated as static methods that return an instance of Self. This means the out argument of an initializer is now treated the same as any other function result or out argument. This is generally invisible, except that patterns like instance.__init__() and x.__copyinit__(y) no longer work. Simply replace them with instance = T() and x = y respectively.

• The @value decorator now additionally derives an implementation of the ExplicitlyCopyable trait. This will ease the transition to explicit copyability requirements by default in the Mojo collection types.

• Indexing into a homogenous tuple now produces the consistent element type without needing a rebind:

    var x = (1, 2, 3, 3, 4)
    var y : Int = x[idx]     # Just works!

    var x = (1, 2, 3, 3, 4)
    var y : Int = x[idx]     # Just works!

• You can now overload positional arguments with a keyword-only argument, and keyword-only arguments with different names:

    struct OverloadedKwArgs:
        var val: Int
  
        fn __init__(out self, single: Int):
            self.val = single
  
        fn __init__(out self, *, double: Int):
            self.val = double * 2
  
        fn __init__(out self, *, triple: Int):
            self.val = triple * 3
  
        fn main():
            OverloadedKwArgs(1)        # val=1
            OverloadedKwArgs(double=1) # val=2
            OverloadedKwArgs(triple=2) # val=6

    struct OverloadedKwArgs:
        var val: Int
  
        fn __init__(out self, single: Int):
            self.val = single
  
        fn __init__(out self, *, double: Int):
            self.val = double * 2
  
        fn __init__(out self, *, triple: Int):
            self.val = triple * 3
  
        fn main():
            OverloadedKwArgs(1)        # val=1
            OverloadedKwArgs(double=1) # val=2
            OverloadedKwArgs(triple=2) # val=6

  This also works with indexing operations:

  struct OverloadedKwArgs:
    var vals: List[Int]
  
    fn __init__(out self):
        self.vals = List[Int](0, 1, 2)
  
    fn __getitem__(self, idx: Int) -> Int:
        return self.vals[idx]
  
    fn __getitem__(self, *, idx2: Int) -> Int:
        return self.vals[idx2 * 2]
  
    fn __setitem__(mut self, idx: Int, val: Int):
        self.vals[idx] = val
  
    fn __setitem__(mut self, val: Int, *, idx2: Int):
          self.vals[idx2 * 2] = val
  
  
  fn main():
      var x = OverloadedKwArgs()
      print(x[1])       # 1
      print(x[idx2=1])  # 2
  
      x[1] = 42
      x[idx2=1] = 84
  
      print(x[1])       # 42
      print(x[idx2=1])  # 84

  struct OverloadedKwArgs:
    var vals: List[Int]
  
    fn __init__(out self):
        self.vals = List[Int](0, 1, 2)
  
    fn __getitem__(self, idx: Int) -> Int:
        return self.vals[idx]
  
    fn __getitem__(self, *, idx2: Int) -> Int:
        return self.vals[idx2 * 2]
  
    fn __setitem__(mut self, idx: Int, val: Int):
        self.vals[idx] = val
  
    fn __setitem__(mut self, val: Int, *, idx2: Int):
          self.vals[idx2 * 2] = val
  
  
  fn main():
      var x = OverloadedKwArgs()
      print(x[1])       # 1
      print(x[idx2=1])  # 2
  
      x[1] = 42
      x[idx2=1] = 84
  
      print(x[1])       # 42
      print(x[idx2=1])  # 84

• The __disable_del x operation has been tightened up to treat all fields of x as consumed by the point of the deletion, so it should be used after all the subfields are transferred or otherwise consumed (for example, at the end of the function), not before uses of the fields.

GPU programming

• The new gpu package provides low-level programming constructs for working with GPUs. The Mojo gpu APIs allow you to manually manage interaction between the CPU host and GPU device, manage memory between devices, synchronize threads, and more. Currently the best way to use these APIs is from inside a MAX custom operation.

  The following code example shows a GPU kernel written in Mojo:

  from max.tensor import ManagedTensorSlice
  from gpu import thread_idx, block_dim, block_idx
  
  fn gpu_add_kernel(out: ManagedTensorSlice, x: ManagedTensorSlice[out.type, out.rank]):
      tid_x = thread_idx.x + block_dim.x * block_idx.x
      tid_y = thread_idx.y + block_dim.y * block_dim.y
      if tid_x < x.dim_size(0) and tid_y < x.dim_size(1):
          out[tid_x, tid_y] = x[tid_x, tid_y] + 1

  from max.tensor import ManagedTensorSlice
  from gpu import thread_idx, block_dim, block_idx
  
  fn gpu_add_kernel(out: ManagedTensorSlice, x: ManagedTensorSlice[out.type, out.rank]):
      tid_x = thread_idx.x + block_dim.x * block_idx.x
      tid_y = thread_idx.y + block_dim.y * block_dim.y
      if tid_x < x.dim_size(0) and tid_y < x.dim_size(1):
          out[tid_x, tid_y] = x[tid_x, tid_y] + 1

  The example above includes only the actual kernel code that’s run on the GPU, not the code to define a custom operation or launch the kernel. For more complete examples, see vector_addition.mojo and top_k.mojo.

• The layout package includes APIs for working with layouts, which describe the organization of a tensor (for example, row-major or column-major layout), and the LayoutTensor type, which represents a tensor with a specified layout. The layout package can be used to build efficient tensor operations that run on a GPU.

  We’ll continue adding code examples and documentation for the gpu and layout packages in future releases.

Standard library changes

• The builtin functions for converting values to different types have been deprecated for actual constructors:

  Before	After
  bool()	Bool()
  float()	Float64()
  int()	Int()
  str()	String()

  These functions were a workaround before Mojo had a way to distinguish between implicit and explicit constructors. For this release you'll get a deprecation warning, and in the next release they'll become compiler errors. You can quickly update your code by doing a Match Case and Match Whole Word search and replace for int( to Int( etc.

• String and friends:

  • Added Char for representing and storing single Unicode characters.

    • Char implements CollectionElement, EqualityComparable, Intable, and Stringable.

    • Char provides methods for categorizing character types, including: Char.is_ascii(), Char.is_ascii_digit(), Char.is_ascii_upper(), Char.is_ascii_lower(), Char.is_ascii_printable(), Char.is_posix_space(), Char.is_python_space().

    • Added a String() constructor from Char.

    • Char can be converted to UInt32 via Char.to_u32().

    • chr() will now abort if given a codepoint value that is not a valid Char.

  • StringRef has been removed in favor of StringSlice. The two types are ABI compatible, and for the exact same behavior one can use StaticString, which is an alias to StringSlice[StaticConstantOrigin].

  • Various functionality has moved from String and StringLiteral to the more general StringSlice type.

  • Added StringSlice.from_utf8() factory method, for validated construction of a StringSlice from a buffer containing UTF-8 encoded data. This method will raise if the buffer contents are not valid UTF-8.

  • Added StringSlice.chars() which returns an iterator over Chars. This is a compliant UTF-8 decoder that returns each Unicode codepoint encoded in the string.

  • Added StringSlice.__getitem__(Slice) which returns a substring. Only step sizes of 1 are supported.

  • Several standard library functions have been changed to take StringSlice instead of String. This generalizes them to be used for any appropriately encoded string in memory, without requiring that the string be heap allocated. This includes: ascii(), atol(), atof(), b16decode(), b16encode(), b64decode(), b64encode(), and ord().

  • Added new String.chars() and String.char_slices() iterator methods, and deprecated the existing String.__iter__() method.

    Different use-cases may prefer iterating over the Chars encoded in a string, or iterating over subslices containing single characters. Neither iteration semantics is an obvious default, so the existing __iter__() method has been deprecated in favor of writing explicit iteration methods for the time being.

    Code of the form:

    var s: String  = ...
    for c in s:
        # ...

    var s: String  = ...
    for c in s:
        # ...

    can be migrated to using the .char_slices() method:

    var s: String = ...
    for c in s.char_slices():
        # ...

    var s: String = ...
    for c in s.char_slices():
        # ...

  • Added StringSlice.char_length() method, to pair with the existing StringSlice.byte_length() method.

  • The String.__len__() and StringSlice.__len__() methods now return the length of the string in bytes.

    Previously, these methods were documented to note that they would eventually return a length in Unicode codepoints. They have been changed to guarantee a length in bytes, since the length in bytes is how they are most often used today (for example, as bounds to low-level memory manipulation logic). Additionally, length in codepoints is a more specialized notion of string length that is rarely the correct metric.

    Users that know they need the length in codepoints can use the str.char_length() method, or len(str.chars()).

  • StringSlice now implements Representable, and that implementation is now used by String.__repr__() and StringLiteral.__repr__().

  • StringSlice now implements EqualityComparable.

    Up until now, StringSlice has implemented a more general __eq__() and __ne__() comparison with StringSlice types that had arbitrary other origins. However, to satisfy EqualityComparable, StringSlice now also has narrower comparison methods that support comparing only with another StringSlice with the exact same origin.

  • The String.write() static method has moved to a String() constructor, and is now buffered. Instead of doing:

    var msg = "my message " + String(x) + " " + String(y) + " " + String(z)

    var msg = "my message " + String(x) + " " + String(y) + " " + String(z)

    Which reallocates the String you should do:

    var msg = String("my message", x, y, z, sep=" ")

    var msg = String("my message", x, y, z, sep=" ")

    Which is cleaner, and buffers to the stack so the String is allocated only once.

  • You can now pass any Writer to write_buffered():

    from utils.write import write_buffered
    
    var string = String("existing string")
    write_buffered(string, 42, 42.4, True, sep=" ")

    from utils.write import write_buffered
    
    var string = String("existing string")
    write_buffered(string, 42, 42.4, True, sep=" ")

    This writes to a buffer on the stack before reallocating the String.

• Collections:

  • A new LinkedList type has been added to the standard library.

  • Added Optional.copied() for constructing an owned Optional[T] from an Optional[Pointer[T]] by copying the pointee value.

  • Added Dict.get_ptr() which returns an Optional[Pointer[V]]. If the given key is present in the dictionary, the optional will hold a pointer to the value. Otherwise, an empty optional is returned.

  • Added new List.extend() overloads taking SIMD and Span. These enable growing a List[Scalar[..]] by copying the elements of a SIMD vector or Span[Scalar[..]], simplifying the writing of some optimized SIMD-aware functionality.

• UnsafePointer changes:

  • UnsafePointer's bitcast() method has now been split into bitcast() for changing the type, origin_cast() for changing mutability, static_alignment_cast() for changing alignment, and address_space_cast() for changing the address space.

  • UnsafePointer is now parameterized on mutability. Previously, UnsafePointer could only represent mutable pointers.

    The new mut parameter can be used to restrict an UnsafePointer to a specific mutability: UnsafePointer[T, mut=False] represents a pointer to an immutable T value. This is analogous to a const * pointer in C++.

  • UnsafePointer.address_of() will now infer the origin and mutability of the resulting pointer from the argument. For example:

    var local = 10
    # Constructs a mutable pointer, because `local` is a mutable memory location
    var ptr = UnsafePointer.address_of(local)

    var local = 10
    # Constructs a mutable pointer, because `local` is a mutable memory location
    var ptr = UnsafePointer.address_of(local)

    To force the construction of an immutable pointer to an otherwise mutable memory location, use a cast:

    var local = 10
    # Cast the mutable pointer to be immutable.
    var ptr = UnsafePointer.address_of(local).origin_cast[mut=False]()

    var local = 10
    # Cast the mutable pointer to be immutable.
    var ptr = UnsafePointer.address_of(local).origin_cast[mut=False]()

  • The unsafe_ptr() method on several standard library collection types have been updated to use parametric mutability: they will return an UnsafePointer whose mutability is inherited from the mutability of the ref self of the receiver at the call site. For example, ptr1 will be immutable, while ptr2 will be mutable:

    fn take_lists(read list1: List[Int], mut list2: List[Int]):
        # Immutable pointer, since receiver is immutable `read` reference
        var ptr1 = list1.unsafe_ptr()
    
        # Mutable pointer, since receiver is mutable `mut` reference
        var ptr2 = list2.unsafe_ptr()

    fn take_lists(read list1: List[Int], mut list2: List[Int]):
        # Immutable pointer, since receiver is immutable `read` reference
        var ptr1 = list1.unsafe_ptr()
    
        # Mutable pointer, since receiver is mutable `mut` reference
        var ptr2 = list2.unsafe_ptr()

• New and updated traits:

  • The ExplicitlyCopyable trait has changed to require a fn copy(self) -> Self method. Previously, an initializer with the signature fn __init__(out self, *, other: Self) had been required by ExplicitlyCopyable.

    This improves the "greppability" and at-a-glance readability when a programmer is looking for places in their code that may be performing copies.

  • The IntLike trait has been removed and its functionality incorporated into the Indexer trait. This enables SIMD scalar integer types and UInt to be used for indexing into all of the collection types, as well as optimizing away normalization checks for UInt indexing.

  • The ImplicitlyIntable trait has been added, allowing types to be implicitly converted to an Int by implementing the __as_int__() method:

    @value
    struct Foo(ImplicitlyIntable):
        var i: Int
    
        fn __as_int__(self) -> Int:
            return self.i

    @value
    struct Foo(ImplicitlyIntable):
        var i: Int
    
        fn __as_int__(self) -> Int:
            return self.i

• You can now cast SIMD types using constructors:

  var val = Int8(42)
  var cast = Int32(val)

  var val = Int8(42)
  var cast = Int32(val)

  It also works when passing a scalar type to larger vector size:

  var vector = SIMD[DType.int64, 4](cast) # [42, 42, 42, 42]

  var vector = SIMD[DType.int64, 4](cast) # [42, 42, 42, 42]

  For values other than scalars the size of the SIMD vector needs to be equal:

  var float_vector = SIMD[DType.float64, 4](vector)

  var float_vector = SIMD[DType.float64, 4](vector)

  SIMD.cast() still exists to infer the size of new vector:

  var inferred_size = float_vector.cast[DType.uint64]() # [42, 42, 42, 42]

  var inferred_size = float_vector.cast[DType.uint64]() # [42, 42, 42, 42]

• Added SIMD.from_bytes() and SIMD.as_bytes() to convert a list of bytes to a list of scalars and vice versa, accepting the endianess as an argument. Similar to Python int.from_bytes() and int.to_bytes() functions.

• You can now use max() and min() with variadic number of arguments.

• bit_ceil() has been renamed to next_power_of_two(), and bit_floor() to prev_power_of_two(). This is to improve readability and clarity in their use.

• Added a new boolean validate parameter to b64decode().

• The b64encode() overload that previously took a List has been changed to take a Span.

• Removed the @implicit decorator from some standard library initializer methods that perform allocation. This reduces places where Mojo code could implicitly allocate where the user may not be aware.

  Removed @implicit from:

  • String.__init__(out self, StringSlice)
  • List.__init__(out self, owned *values: T)
  • List.__init__(out self, span: Span[T])

• Added more aliases in sys.ffi to round out the usual needs for FFI bindings.

Tooling changes

• mblack (aka mojo format) no longer formats non-Mojo files. This prevents unexpected formatting of Python files.

• Full struct signature information is now exposed in the documentation generator, and in the symbol outline and hover markdown via the Mojo Language Server.

• The env_get_dtype() function has been added to the sys.param_env module. This allows you to get the value of a DType from the param environment.

❌ Removed

• StringRef has been removed. Use StringSlice instead.

  • Changed sys.argv() to return list of StringSlice.

  • Added explicit Path() constructor from StringSlice.

• The Tuple.get[i, T]() method has been removed. Please use tup[i] or rebind[T](tup[i]) as needed instead.

• StringableCollectionElement is deprecated. Use WritableCollectionElement instead, which still allows you to construct a String, but can avoid intermediate allocations.

• The IntLike trait has been removed and its functionality incorporated into the Indexer trait.

• The Type{field1: 42, field2: 17} syntax for direct initializing register passable types has been removed. This was legacy syntax - to upgrade your code, add the @value decorator to your struct to get a memberwise initializer and use Type(field1=42, field2 = 17) instead.

🛠️ Fixed

• The Mojo Kernel for Jupyter Notebooks is working again on nightly releases.

• The command mojo debug --vscode now sets the current working directory properly.

• Issue #3796 - Compiler crash handling for-else statement.

• Issue #3540 - Using named output slot breaks trait conformance

• Issue #3617 - Can't generate the constructors for a type wrapping !lit.ref

• The Mojo Language Server doesn't crash anymore on empty __init__.mojo files. Issue #3826.

• Issue #3935 - Confusing OOM error when using Tuple.get() incorrectly.

• Issue #3955 - Unexpected copy behavior with def arguments in loops

• Issue #3960 - Infinite for loop

v24.6 (2024-12-17)

✨ Highlights

Here's a brief summary of some of the major changes in this release, with more detailed information in the following sections:

• The inout and borrowed argument conventions have been renamed to mut and read, respectively. A new out convention has been added for the self argument in constructors and for named results. See Language changes for details.

• Lifetime and related types in the standard library have been renamed to Origin to better clarify that parameters of this type indicate where a reference is derived from, not the more complicated notion of where a variable is initialized and destroyed. As a consequence the __lifetime_of() operator is now named __origin_of().

  There are also a number of other origin-related improvements in this release, including being able to specify a union of origins by listing multiple values in the __origin_of() operator or inside the ref origin specifier (ref [a, b]). For details, see Language changes.

  For background information and rationale on the name change see the proposal. For more information on origins, see Lifetimes, origins and references in the Mojo Manual.

• Implicit conversions are now opt-in using the @implicit decorator. See Language changes for details.

• The standard library has added several new types, including Deque (a double-ended queue) and OwnedPointer (safe, single-owner, non-nullable smart pointer). See Standard library changes for details.

• The VS Code extension now supports setting data breakpoints and function breakpoints, and the Mojo LLDB debugger supports symbol breakpoints, such as b main or b my_module::main.

• We've made a number of improvement to how information is displayed in error messages, LSP, and generated API documentation. For details, see Tooling changes.

• And we've added a number of new docs, including a brand new Mojo tutorial, new pages on operators and expressions, error handling, and pointers, and many smaller additions and improvements.

Language changes

• Argument convention changes:

  • The inout and borrowed argument conventions have been renamed to mut (for "mutate") and read, respectively. These verbs reflect what the callee can do to the argument value passed in by the caller, without requiring the programmer to know about advanced features like references.

    For information on Mojo's argument conventions, see Argument conventions in the Mojo Manual.

  • The argument convention for the self argument in the __init__(), __copyinit__(), and __moveinit__() methods has been changed from inout to out, reflecting that a constructor method initializes its self value without reading from it. This also enables spelling the type of an initializer correctly, which was not supported before:

    struct Foo:
        fn __init__(out self): pass
    
    fn test():
        # This works now
        var fnPtr : fn(out x: Foo)->None = Foo.__init__
    
        var someFoo : Foo
        fnPtr(someFoo)  # initializes someFoo.

    struct Foo:
        fn __init__(out self): pass
    
    fn test():
        # This works now
        var fnPtr : fn(out x: Foo)->None = Foo.__init__
    
        var someFoo : Foo
        fnPtr(someFoo)  # initializes someFoo.

    The previous fn __init__(inout self) syntax is still supported in this release of Mojo, but will be removed in the future. Please migrate to the new syntax.

  • Similarly, the spelling of named results has switched to use out syntax instead of -> T as name. Functions may have at most one named result or return type specified with the usual -> syntax. out arguments may occur anywhere in the argument list, but are typically last (except for __init__ methods, where they are typically first).

    # This function has type "fn() -> String"
    fn example(out result: String):
      result = "foo"

    # This function has type "fn() -> String"
    fn example(out result: String):
      result = "foo"

    The parser still accepts the old syntax as a synonym for this, but that will eventually be deprecated and removed.

    This was discussed extensively in a public proposal. For more information, see Named results in the Mojo Manual.

• Single argument constructors now require the @implicit decorator to allow for implicit conversions. Previously you could define an __init__ that takes a single argument:

  struct Foo:
      var value: Int
  
      fn __init__(out self, value: Int):
          self.value = value

  struct Foo:
      var value: Int
  
      fn __init__(out self, value: Int):
          self.value = value

  And this would allow you to pass an Int in the position of a Foo:

  fn func(foo: Foo):
      print("implicitly converted Int to Foo:", foo.value)
  
  fn main():
      func(Int(42))

  fn func(foo: Foo):
      print("implicitly converted Int to Foo:", foo.value)
  
  fn main():
      func(Int(42))

  This can result in complicated errors that are difficult to debug. By default this implicit behavior is now turned off, so you have to explicitly construct Foo:

  fn main():
      func(Foo(42))

  fn main():
      func(Foo(42))

  You can still opt into implicit conversions by adding the @implicit decorator. For example, to enable implicit conversions from Int to Foo:

  struct Foo:
      var value: Int
  
      @implicit
      fn __init__(out self, value: Int):
          self.value = value

  struct Foo:
      var value: Int
  
      @implicit
      fn __init__(out self, value: Int):
          self.value = value

  For more information see Constructors and implicit conversion in the Mojo Manual.

• Origin-related changes:

  • The AnyLifetime type (useful for declaring origin types as parameters) has has been renamed to Origin and the __lifetime_of() operator renamed to __origin_of().

  • Origin is now a complete wrapper around the MLIR origin type.

    • The Origin.type alias has been renamed to _mlir_origin. In parameter lists, you can now write just Origin[..], instead of Origin[..].type.

    • ImmutableOrigin and MutableOrigin are now, respectively, just aliases for Origin[False] and Origin[True].

    • Origin struct values are now supported in the origin specifier of a ref [..] argument.

    • Added Origin.cast_from for casting the mutability of an origin value.

  • ref arguments and results now allow for providing a memory value directly in the origin specifier, rather than requiring the use of __origin_of(). It is still fine to use __origin_of() explicitly though, and this is required when specifying origins for parameters (e.g. to the Pointer type). For example, this is now valid without __origin_of():

    fn return_ref(a: String) -> ref [a] String:
        return a

    fn return_ref(a: String) -> ref [a] String:
        return a

  • Various improvements to origin handling and syntax have landed, including support for the ternary operator and allowing multiple arguments in a ref specifier (which are implicitly unions). This enables expression of simple algorithms cleanly:

    fn my_min[T: Comparable](ref a: T, ref b: T) -> ref [a, b] T:
      return a if a < b else b

    fn my_min[T: Comparable](ref a: T, ref b: T) -> ref [a, b] T:
      return a if a < b else b

    It is also nice that my_min automatically and implicitly propagates the mutability of its arguments, so things like my_min(str1, str2) += "foo" is valid.

  • ref function arguments without an origin clause are now treated as ref [_], which is more syntactically convenient and consistent:

    fn takes_and_return_ref(ref a: String) -> ref [a] String:
        return a

    fn takes_and_return_ref(ref a: String) -> ref [a] String:
        return a

  • The __type_of(x) and __origin_of(x) operators are much more general now: they allow arbitrary expressions inside of them, allow referring to dynamic values in parameter contexts, and even allow referring to raising functions in non-raising contexts. These operations never evaluate their expression, so any side effects that occur in the expression are never evaluated at runtime, eliminating concerns about __type_of(expensive()) being a problem.

  • The destructor insertion logic in Mojo is now aware that types that take an MutableAnyOrigin or ImmutableAnyOrigin as part of their signature could potentially access any live value that destructor insertion is tracking, eliminating a significant usability issue with unsafe APIs like UnsafePointer. Consider a typical example working with strings before this change:

    var str = String(...)
    var ptr = str.unsafe_ptr()
    some_low_level_api(ptr)
    _ = str^  # OLD HACK: Explicitly keep string alive until here!

    var str = String(...)
    var ptr = str.unsafe_ptr()
    some_low_level_api(ptr)
    _ = str^  # OLD HACK: Explicitly keep string alive until here!

    The _ = str^ pattern was formerly required because the Mojo compiler has no idea what "ptr" might reference. As a consequence, it had no idea that some_low_level_api() might access str and therefore thought it was ok to destroy the String before the call - this is why the explicit lifetime extension was required.

    Mojo now knows that UnsafePointer may access the MutableAnyOrigin origin, and now assumes that any API that uses that origin could use live values. In this case, it assumes that some_low_level_api() might access str and because it might be using it, it cannot destroy str until after the call. The consequence of this is that the old hack is no longer needed for these cases!

  • Function types now accept an origin set parameter. This parameter represents the origins of values captured by a parameter closure. The compiler automatically tags parameter closures with the right set of origins. This enables lifetimes and parameter closures to correctly compose.

    fn call_it[f: fn() capturing [_] -> None]():
        f()
    
    fn test():
        var msg = String("hello world")
    
        @parameter
        fn say_hi():
            print(msg)
    
        call_it[say_hi]()
        # no longer need to write `_ = msg^`!!

    fn call_it[f: fn() capturing [_] -> None]():
        f()
    
    fn test():
        var msg = String("hello world")
    
        @parameter
        fn say_hi():
            print(msg)
    
        call_it[say_hi]()
        # no longer need to write `_ = msg^`!!

    Note that this only works for higher-order functions which have explicitly added [_] as the capture origins. By default, the compiler still assumes a capturing closure does not reference any origins. This will soon change.

• Infer-only parameters may now be explicitly bound with keywords, enabling some important patterns in the standard library:

  struct StringSlice[is_mutable: Bool, //, origin: Origin[is_mutable]]: ...
  alias ImmStringSlice = StringSlice[is_mutable=False]
  # This auto-parameterizes on the origin, but constrains it to being an
  # immutable slice instead of a potentially mutable one.
  fn take_imm_slice(a: ImmStringSlice): ...

  struct StringSlice[is_mutable: Bool, //, origin: Origin[is_mutable]]: ...
  alias ImmStringSlice = StringSlice[is_mutable=False]
  # This auto-parameterizes on the origin, but constrains it to being an
  # immutable slice instead of a potentially mutable one.
  fn take_imm_slice(a: ImmStringSlice): ...

• The flag for turning on asserts has changed, e.g. to enable all checks:

  mojo -D ASSERT=all main.mojo

  mojo -D ASSERT=all main.mojo

  The levels are:

  • none: all assertions off
  • warn: print assertion errors e.g. for multithreaded tests (previously -D ASSERT_WARNING)
  • safe: the default mode for standard CPU safety assertions
  • all: turn on all assertions (previously -D MOJO_ENABLE_ASSERTIONS)

  You can now also pass Stringable args to format a message, which will have no runtime penalty or IR bloat cost when assertions are off. Previously you had to:

  x = -1
  debug_assert(
    x > 0, String.format_sequence(“expected x to be more than 0 but got: ”, x)
  )

  x = -1
  debug_assert(
    x > 0, String.format_sequence(“expected x to be more than 0 but got: ”, x)
  )

  Which can't be optimized away by the compiler in release builds, you can now pass multiple args for a formatted message at no runtime cost:

  debug_assert(x > 0, “expected x to be more than 0 but got: ”, x)

  debug_assert(x > 0, “expected x to be more than 0 but got: ”, x)

• Automatic parameterization of parameters is now supported. Specifying a parameterized type with unbound parameters causes them to be implicitly added to the function signature as infer-only parameters.

  fn foo[value: SIMD[DType.int32, _]]():
    pass
  
  # Equivalent to
  fn foo[size: Int, //, value: SIMD[DType.int32, size]]():
    pass

  fn foo[value: SIMD[DType.int32, _]]():
    pass
  
  # Equivalent to
  fn foo[size: Int, //, value: SIMD[DType.int32, size]]():
    pass

• Mojo can now interpret simple LLVM intrinsics in parameter expressions, enabling things like count_leading_zeros to work at compile time: Issue #933.

• Introduced the @explicit_destroy annotation, the __disable_del keyword, the UnknownDestructibility trait, and the ImplicitlyDestructible keyword, for the experimental explicitly destroyed types feature.

• Added associated types; we can now have aliases like alias T: AnyType, alias N: Int, etc. in a trait, and then specify them in structs that conform to that trait. For more information, see Associated aliases for generics.

Standard library changes

• Introduced a new Deque (double-ended queue) collection type, based on a dynamically resizing circular buffer for efficient O(1) additions and removals at both ends as well as O(1) direct access to all elements.

  The Deque supports the full Python collections.deque API, ensuring that all expected deque operations perform as in Python.

  Enhancements to the standard Python API include peek() and peekleft() methods for non-destructive access to the last and first elements, and advanced constructor options (capacity, min_capacity, and shrink) for customizing memory allocation and performance. These options allow for optimized memory usage and reduced buffer reallocations, providing flexibility based on application requirements.

• The Formatter struct has been replaced with a Writer trait to enable buffered IO, increasing print and file writing perf to the same speed as C. It's now more general purpose and can write any Span[Byte]. To align with this the Formattable trait is now named Writable, and the String.format_sequence() static method to initialize a new String has been renamed to String.write(). Here's an example of using all of the changes:

  from memory import Span
  
  @value
  struct NewString(Writer, Writable):
      var s: String
  
      # Writer requirement to write a Span of Bytes
      fn write_bytes(inout self, bytes: Span[Byte, _]):
          self.s._iadd[False](bytes)
  
      # Writer requirement to take multiple args
      fn write[*Ts: Writable](inout self, *args: *Ts):
          @parameter
          fn write_arg[T: Writable](arg: T):
              arg.write_to(self)
  
          args.each[write_arg]()
  
      # Also make it Writable to allow `print` to write the inner String
      fn write_to[W: Writer](self, inout writer: W):
          writer.write(self.s)
  
  
  @value
  struct Point(Writable):
      var x: Int
      var y: Int
  
      # Pass multiple args to the Writer. The Int and StringLiteral types call
      # `writer.write_bytes` in their own `write_to` implementations.
      fn write_to[W: Writer](self, inout writer: W):
          writer.write("Point(", self.x, ", ", self.y, ")")
  
      # Enable conversion to a String using `str(point)`
      fn __str__(self) -> String:
          return String.write(self)
  
  
  fn main():
      var point = Point(1, 2)
      var new_string = NewString(str(point))
      new_string.write("\n", Point(3, 4))
      print(new_string)

  from memory import Span
  
  @value
  struct NewString(Writer, Writable):
      var s: String
  
      # Writer requirement to write a Span of Bytes
      fn write_bytes(inout self, bytes: Span[Byte, _]):
          self.s._iadd[False](bytes)
  
      # Writer requirement to take multiple args
      fn write[*Ts: Writable](inout self, *args: *Ts):
          @parameter
          fn write_arg[T: Writable](arg: T):
              arg.write_to(self)
  
          args.each[write_arg]()
  
      # Also make it Writable to allow `print` to write the inner String
      fn write_to[W: Writer](self, inout writer: W):
          writer.write(self.s)
  
  
  @value
  struct Point(Writable):
      var x: Int
      var y: Int
  
      # Pass multiple args to the Writer. The Int and StringLiteral types call
      # `writer.write_bytes` in their own `write_to` implementations.
      fn write_to[W: Writer](self, inout writer: W):
          writer.write("Point(", self.x, ", ", self.y, ")")
  
      # Enable conversion to a String using `str(point)`
      fn __str__(self) -> String:
          return String.write(self)
  
  
  fn main():
      var point = Point(1, 2)
      var new_string = NewString(str(point))
      new_string.write("\n", Point(3, 4))
      print(new_string)

  Point(1, 2)
  Point(3, 4)

  Point(1, 2)
  Point(3, 4)

• Python interop changes:

  • Introduced TypedPythonObject as a light-weight way to annotate PythonObject values with static type information. This design will likely evolve and change significantly.

    • Added TypedPythonObject["Tuple].__getitem__() for accessing the elements of a Python tuple.

  • Added Python.add_object(), to add a named PythonObject value to a Python 'module' object instance.

  • Added Python.unsafe_get_python_exception(), as an efficient low-level utility to get the Mojo Error equivalent of the current CPython error state.

  • Add PythonObject.from_borrowed_ptr(), to simplify the construction of PythonObject values from CPython 'borrowed reference' pointers.

    The existing PythonObject.__init__(PyObjectPtr) should continue to be used for the more common case of constructing a PythonObject from a 'strong reference' pointer.

  • Support for multi-dimensional indexing and slicing for PythonObject (PR #3549, PR #3583).

    var np = Python.import_module("numpy")
    var a = np.array(PythonObject([1,2,3,4,5,6])).reshape(2,3)
    print((a[0, 1])) # 2
    print((a[1][::-1])) # [6 5 4]

    var np = Python.import_module("numpy")
    var a = np.array(PythonObject([1,2,3,4,5,6])).reshape(2,3)
    print((a[0, 1])) # 2
    print((a[1][::-1])) # [6 5 4]

    Note that the syntax, a[1, ::-1], is currently not supported.

  • Added PythonObject.__contains__(). (PR #3101)

    Example usage:

    x = PythonObject([1,2,3])
    if 1 in x:
        print("1 in x")

    x = PythonObject([1,2,3])
    if 1 in x:
        print("1 in x")

• Pointer related changes:

  • The UnsafePointer type now has an origin parameter that can be used when the UnsafePointer points to a value with a known origin. This origin is propagated through the ptr[] indirection operation. This parameter and other UnsafePointer parameters (other than the type) are now keyword-only.

  • You can now index into UnsafePointer using SIMD scalar integral types:

    p = UnsafePointer[Int].alloc(1)
    i = UInt8(1)
    p[i] = 42
    print(p[i])

    p = UnsafePointer[Int].alloc(1)
    i = UInt8(1)
    p[i] = 42
    print(p[i])

  • Added a new OwnedPointer type as a safe, single-owner, non-nullable smart pointer with similar semantics to Rust's Box<> and C++'s std::unique_ptr. (PR #3524)

  • Arc has been renamed to ArcPointer, for consistency with OwnedPointer.

  • ArcPointer now implements Identifiable, and can be compared for pointer equivalence using a is b.

  • The Reference type has been renamed to Pointer: a memory safe complement to UnsafePointer. This change is motivated by the fact that Pointer is assignable and requires an explicit dereference with ptr[]. Renaming to Pointer clarifies that "references" means ref arguments and results, and gives us a model that is more similar to what the C++ community would expect.

    For an overview of Mojo's pointer types, see the new Intro to pointers page in the Mojo Manual.

  • A new as_noalias_ptr() method as been added to UnsafePointer. This method specifies to the compiler that the resultant pointer is a distinct identifiable object that does not alias any other memory in the local scope.

• Added the Floatable and FloatableRaising traits to denote types that can be converted to a Float64 value using the builtin float function. Made SIMD and FloatLiteral conform to the Floatable trait. (PR #3163)

  fn foo[F: Floatable](v: F):
    ...
  
  var f = float(Int32(45))

  fn foo[F: Floatable](v: F):
    ...
  
  var f = float(Int32(45))

• The rebind() standard library function now works with memory-only types in addition to @register_passable("trivial") ones, without requiring a copy. For more information, see The rebind() builtin in the Mojo Manual.

• Introduced the random.shuffle() function for randomizing the elements of a List. (PR #3327)

  Example:

  from random import shuffle
  
  var l = List[Int](1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
  shuffle(l)

  from random import shuffle
  
  var l = List[Int](1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
  shuffle(l)

• The Dict.__getitem__() method now returns a reference instead of a copy of the value (or raises). This improves the performance of common code that uses Dict by allowing borrows from the Dict elements.

• Slice.step is now an Optional[Int], matching the optionality of slice.step in Python. (PR #3160)

• There is now a Byte alias to better express intent when working with a pack of bits. (PR #3670).

• Expanded os.path with new functions:

  • os.path.expandvars(): Expands environment variables in a path (PR #3735).
  • os.path.splitroot(): Split a path into drive, root and tail. (PR #3780).

• Added a reserve() method and new constructor to the String struct to allocate additional capacity. (PR #3755).

• A new StringLiteral.get[some_stringable]() method is available. It allows forming a runtime-constant StringLiteral from a compile-time-dynamic Stringable value.

• Span has moved from the utils module to the memory module.

• Span now implements __reversed__(). This means that one can get a reverse iterator over a Span using reversed(my_span). Users should currently prefer this method over my_span[::-1].

• A new AsBytes trait has been added to enable taking a Span[Byte] from any type that implements as_bytes(). String.as_bytes() and String.as_bytes_slice() have been consolidated under String.as_bytes() to return a Span[Byte]. If you require a copy, you can convert the Span to a List with List(my_string.as_bytes()).

• StringSlice now implements strip(), rstrip(), and lstrip().

• StringRef now implements split() which can be used to split a StringRef into a List[StringRef] by a delimiter. (PR #2705)

• StringRef is now representable so repr(StringRef("hello")) will return StringRef('hello').

• More things have been removed from the auto-exported set of entities in the prelude module from the Mojo standard library:

  • UnsafePointer has been removed. Please explicitly import it via from memory import UnsafePointer.
  • StringRef has been removed. Please explicitly import it via from utils import StringRef.

• Restored implicit copyability of Tuple and ListLiteral.

• The aliases for C foreign function interface (FFI) have been renamed: C_int -> c_int, C_long -> c_long and so on.

• Float32 and Float64 are now printed and converted to strings with roundtrip guarantee and shortest representation:

  Value                       Old                       New
  Float64(0.3)                0.29999999999999999       0.3
  Float32(0.3)                0.30000001192092896       0.3
  Float64(0.0001)             0.0001                    0.0001
  Float32(0.0001)             9.9999997473787516e-05    0.0001
  Float64(-0.00001)           -1.0000000000000001e-05   -1e-05
  Float32(-0.00001)           -9.9999997473787516e-06   -1e-05
  Float32(0.00001234)         1.2339999557298142e-05    1.234e-05
  Float32(-0.00000123456)     -1.2345600453045336e-06   -1.23456e-06
  Float64(1.1234567e-320)     1.1235052786429946e-320   1.1235e-320
  Float64(1.234 * 10**16)     12340000000000000.0       1.234e+16

  Value                       Old                       New
  Float64(0.3)                0.29999999999999999       0.3
  Float32(0.3)                0.30000001192092896       0.3
  Float64(0.0001)             0.0001                    0.0001
  Float32(0.0001)             9.9999997473787516e-05    0.0001
  Float64(-0.00001)           -1.0000000000000001e-05   -1e-05
  Float32(-0.00001)           -9.9999997473787516e-06   -1e-05
  Float32(0.00001234)         1.2339999557298142e-05    1.234e-05
  Float32(-0.00000123456)     -1.2345600453045336e-06   -1.23456e-06
  Float64(1.1234567e-320)     1.1235052786429946e-320   1.1235e-320
  Float64(1.234 * 10**16)     12340000000000000.0       1.234e+16

• The StaticIntTuple data structure in the utils package has been renamed to IndexList. The data structure now allows one to specify the index bitwidth of the elements along with whether the underlying indices are signed or unsigned.

• Added DLHandle.get_symbol(), for getting a pointer to a symbol in a dynamic library. This is more general purpose than the existing methods for getting function pointers.

Tooling changes

• The VS Code Mojo Debugger now has a buildArgs JSON debug configuration setting that can be used in conjunction with mojoFile to define the build arguments when compiling the Mojo file.

• The VS Code extension now supports a Configure Build and Run Args command that helps set the build and run args for actions file Run Mojo File and Debug Mojo File. A corresponding button appears in Run and Debug selector in the top right corner of a Mojo File.

• The VS Code extension now has the mojo.run.focusOnTerminalAfterLaunch setting, which controls whether to focus on the terminal used by the Mojo: Run Mojo File command or on the editor after launch. Issue #3532.

• The VS Code extension now has the mojo.SDK.additionalSDKs setting, which allows the user to provide a list of MAX SDKs that the extension can use when determining a default SDK to use. The user can select the default SDK to use with the Mojo: Select the default MAX SDK command.

• The VS Code extension now supports setting data breakpoints as well as function breakpoints.

• The Mojo LLDB debugger now supports symbol breakpoints, for example, b main or b my_module::main.

• Error messages that include type names no longer include inferred or defaulted parameters when they aren't needed. For example, previously Mojo complained about things like:

  ... cannot be converted from 'UnsafePointer[UInt, 0, _default_alignment::AnyType](), MutableAnyOrigin]' to 'UnsafePointer[Int, 0, _default_alignment[::AnyType](), MutableAnyOrigin]'

  ... cannot be converted from 'UnsafePointer[UInt, 0, _default_alignment::AnyType](), MutableAnyOrigin]' to 'UnsafePointer[Int, 0, _default_alignment[::AnyType](), MutableAnyOrigin]'

  it now complains more helpfully that:

  ... cannot be converted from 'UnsafePointer[UInt]' to 'UnsafePointer[Int]'

  ... cannot be converted from 'UnsafePointer[UInt]' to 'UnsafePointer[Int]'

• Tooling now prints the origins of ref arguments and results correctly, and prints self instead of self: Self in methods.

• The Mojo Language Server and generated documentation now print parametric result types correctly, e.g. showing SIMD[type, simd_width] instead of SIMD[$0, $1].

• Generated API documentation now shows the signatures for structs, and identifies @register_passable and @register_passable("trivial") types.

• The VS Code extension now allows cancelling the installation of its private MAX SDK.

• The VS Code extension now opens the Run and Debug tab automatically whenever a debug session starts.

• The mojo debug --vscode command now support the --init-command and --stop-on-entry flags. Execute mojo debug --help for more information.

• The Mojo LLDB debugger on VS Code now supports inspecting the raw attributes of variables that are handled as synthetic types, e.g. List from Mojo or std::vector from C++.

• The VS Code extension now allows selecting a default SDK when multiple are available.

❌ Removed

• The UnsafePointer.bitcast() overload for DType has been removed. Wrap your DType in a Scalar[my_dtype] to call the only overload of bitcast() now.

🛠️ Fixed

• Lifetime tracking is now fully field sensitive, which makes the uninitialized variable checker more precise.

• Issue #1310 - Mojo permits the use of any constructor for implicit conversions

• Issue #1632 - Mojo produces weird error when inout function is used in non mutating function

• Issue #3444 - Raising init causing use of uninitialized variable

• Issue #3544 - Known mutable ref argument are not optimized as noalias by LLVM.

• Issue #3559 - VariadicPack doesn't extend the lifetimes of the values it references.

• Issue #3627 - Compiler overlooked exclusivity violation caused by ref [MutableAnyOrigin] T

• Issue #3710 - Mojo frees memory while reference to it is still in use.

• Issue #3805 - Crash When Initializing !llvm.ptr.

• Issue #3816 - Ternary if-operator doesn't propagate origin information.

• Issue #3815 - [BUG] Mutability not preserved when taking the union of two origins.

• Issue #3829 - Poor error message when invoking a function pointer upon an argument of the wrong origin

• Issue #3830 - Failures emitting register RValues to ref arguments.

• The VS Code extension now auto-updates its private copy of the MAX SDK.

• The variadic initializer for SIMD now works in parameter expressions.

• The VS Code extension now downloads its private copy of the MAX SDK in a way that prevents ETXTBSY errors on Linux.

• The VS Code extension now allows invoking a mojo formatter from SDK installations that contain white spaces in their path.

Special thanks

Special thanks to our community contributors: @soraos, @jjvraw, @bgreni, @thatstoasty, @szbergeron, @rd4com, @fknfilewalker, @gabrieldemarmiesse, @avitkauskas, and @martinvuyk.

v24.5 (2024-09-13)

✨ Highlights

Here's a brief summary of some of the major changes in this release, with more detailed information in the following sections:

• Mojo now supports Python 3.12 interoperability.

• The set of automatically imported entities (types, aliases, functions) into users' Mojo programs has been dramatically reduced. This can break existing user code as users will need to explicitly import what they're using for cases previously automatically included before.

• print() now requires that its arguments conform to the Formattable trait. This enables efficient stream-based writing by default, avoiding unnecessary intermediate String heap allocations.

• The new builtin input() function prints an optional prompt and reads a line from standard input, in the same way as Python.

• Mojo now allows implicit definitions of variables within a fn in the same way that has been allowed in a def. The var keyword is still allowed, but is now optional.

• Mojo now diagnoses "argument exclusivity" violations due to aliasing references. Mojo requires references (including implicit references due to borrowed/inout arguments) to be uniquely referenced (non-aliased) if mutable. This is a warning in the 24.5 release, but will be upgraded to an error in subsequent releases.

• Mojo now supports "conditional conformances" where some methods on a struct have additional trait requirements that the struct itself doesn't.

• DTypePointer, LegacyPointer, and Pointer have been removed. Use UnsafePointer instead. Functions that previously took a DTypePointer now take an equivalent UnsafePointer. For more information on using pointers, see Unsafe pointers in the Mojo Manual.

• There are many new standard library APIs, with new features for strings, collections, and interacting with the filesystem and environment. Changes are listed in the standard library section.

• The VS Code extension now supports a vendored MAX SDK for VS Code, which is automatically downloaded by the extension and it's used for all Mojo features, including the Mojo Language Server, the Mojo debugger, the Mojo formatter, and more.

• mojo test now uses the Mojo compiler for running unit tests. This will resolve compilation issues that sometimes appeared, and will also improve overall test execution times.

Language changes

• Mojo now allows implicit definitions of variables within a fn in the same way that has been allowed in a def. The var keyword is still allowed and still denotes the declaration of a new variable with a scope (in both def and fn). Relaxing this makes fn and def more similar, but they still differ in other important ways.

• Mojo now diagnoses "argument exclusivity" violations due to aliasing references. Mojo requires references (including implicit references due to borrowed/inout arguments) to be uniquely referenced (non-aliased) if mutable. This is important for code safety, because it allows the compiler (and readers of code) to understand where and when a value is mutated. It is also useful for performance optimization because it allows the compiler to know that accesses through immutable references cannot change behind the scenes. Here is an invalid example:

  fn take_two_strings(a: String, inout b: String):
     # Mojo knows 'a' and 'b' cannot be the same string.
     b += a
  
  fn invalid_access():
    var my_string = String()
  
    # warning: passing `my_string` inout is invalid since it is also passed
    # borrowed.
    take_two_strings(my_string, my_string)

  fn take_two_strings(a: String, inout b: String):
     # Mojo knows 'a' and 'b' cannot be the same string.
     b += a
  
  fn invalid_access():
    var my_string = String()
  
    # warning: passing `my_string` inout is invalid since it is also passed
    # borrowed.
    take_two_strings(my_string, my_string)

  This is similar to Swift exclusivity checking and the Rust language sometimes known as "aliasing xor mutability". That said, the Mojo implementation details are somewhat different because lifetimes are embedded in types.

  This is a warning in the 24.5 release, but will be upgraded to an error in subsequent releases.

  Argument exclusivity is not enforced for register-passable types. They are passed by copy, so they don't form aliases.

• Mojo now supports "conditional conformances" where some methods on a struct have additional trait requirements that the struct itself doesn't. This is expressed through an explicitly declared self type:

  struct GenericThing[Type: AnyType]:  # Works with anything
    # Sugar for 'fn normal_method[Type: AnyType](self: GenericThing[Type]):'
    fn normal_method(self): ...
  
    # Just redeclare the requirements with more specific types:
    fn needs_move[Type: Movable](self: GenericThing[Type], owned val: Type):
      var tmp = val^  # Ok to move 'val' since it is Movable
      ...
  fn usage_example():
    var a = GenericThing[Int]()
    a.normal_method() # Ok, Int conforms to AnyType
    a.needs_move(42)  # Ok, Int is movable
  
    var b = GenericThing[NonMovable]()
    b.normal_method() # Ok, NonMovable conforms to AnyType
  
      # error: argument type 'NonMovable' does not conform to trait 'Movable'
    b.needs_move(NonMovable())

  struct GenericThing[Type: AnyType]:  # Works with anything
    # Sugar for 'fn normal_method[Type: AnyType](self: GenericThing[Type]):'
    fn normal_method(self): ...
  
    # Just redeclare the requirements with more specific types:
    fn needs_move[Type: Movable](self: GenericThing[Type], owned val: Type):
      var tmp = val^  # Ok to move 'val' since it is Movable
      ...
  fn usage_example():
    var a = GenericThing[Int]()
    a.normal_method() # Ok, Int conforms to AnyType
    a.needs_move(42)  # Ok, Int is movable
  
    var b = GenericThing[NonMovable]()
    b.normal_method() # Ok, NonMovable conforms to AnyType
  
      # error: argument type 'NonMovable' does not conform to trait 'Movable'
    b.needs_move(NonMovable())

  Conditional conformance works with dunder methods and other things as well.

• As a specific form of "conditional conformances", initializers in a struct may indicate specific parameter bindings to use in the type of their self argument. For example:

  @value
  struct MyStruct[size: Int]:
      fn __init__(inout self: MyStruct[0]): pass
      fn __init__(inout self: MyStruct[1], a: Int): pass
      fn __init__(inout self: MyStruct[2], a: Int, b: Int): pass
  
  def test(x: Int):
      a = MyStruct()      # Infers size=0 from 'self' type.
      b = MyStruct(x)     # Infers size=1 from 'self' type.
      c = MyStruct(x, x)  # Infers size=2 from 'self' type.

  @value
  struct MyStruct[size: Int]:
      fn __init__(inout self: MyStruct[0]): pass
      fn __init__(inout self: MyStruct[1], a: Int): pass
      fn __init__(inout self: MyStruct[2], a: Int, b: Int): pass
  
  def test(x: Int):
      a = MyStruct()      # Infers size=0 from 'self' type.
      b = MyStruct(x)     # Infers size=1 from 'self' type.
      c = MyStruct(x, x)  # Infers size=2 from 'self' type.

• Mojo now supports named result bindings. Named result bindings are useful for directly emplacing function results into the output slot of a function. This feature provides more flexibility and guarantees around emplacing the result of a function compared to "guaranteed" named return value optimization (NRVO). If a @register_passable result is bound to a name, the result value is made accessible as a mutable reference.

  fn efficiently_return_string(b: Bool) -> String as output:
      if b:
          output = "emplaced!"
          mutate(output)
          return
      return "regular return"

  fn efficiently_return_string(b: Bool) -> String as output:
      if b:
          output = "emplaced!"
          mutate(output)
          return
      return "regular return"

  If we used a temporary for output instead, we would need to move into the result slot, which wouldn't work if the result type was non-movable.

  In a function with a named result, return may be used with no operand to signal an exit from the function, or it can be used normally to specify the return value of the function. The compiler will error if the result is not initialized on all normal exit paths from the function.

• __setitem__() now works with variadic argument lists such as:

  struct YourType:
      fn __setitem__(inout self, *indices: Int, val: Int): ...

  struct YourType:
      fn __setitem__(inout self, *indices: Int, val: Int): ...

  The Mojo compiler now always passes the "new value" being set using the last keyword argument of the __setitem__(), e.g. turning yourType[1, 2] = 3 into yourType.__setitem__(1, 2, val=3). This fixes Issue #248.

• Mojo context managers used in regions of code that may raise no longer need to define a "conditional" exit function in the form of fn __exit__(self, e: Error) -> Bool. This function allows the context manager to conditionally intercept and handle the error and allow the function to continue executing. This is useful for some applications, but in many cases the conditional exit would delegate to the unconditional exit function fn __exit__(self).

  Concretely, this enables defining with regions that unconditionally propagate inner errors, allowing code like:

  def might_raise() -> Int:
      ...
  
  def foo() -> Int:
      with ContextMgr():
          return might_raise()
      # no longer complains about missing return
  
  def bar():
      var x: Int
      with ContextMgr():
          x = might_raise()
      print(x) # no longer complains about 'x' being uninitialized

  def might_raise() -> Int:
      ...
  
  def foo() -> Int:
      with ContextMgr():
          return might_raise()
      # no longer complains about missing return
  
  def bar():
      var x: Int
      with ContextMgr():
          x = might_raise()
      print(x) # no longer complains about 'x' being uninitialized

• async functions now support memory-only results (like String, List, etc.) and raises. Accordingly, both Coroutine and RaisingCoroutine have been changed to accept AnyType instead of AnyTrivialRegType. This means the result types of async functions do not need to be Movable.

  async fn raise_or_string(c: Bool) raises -> String:
      if c:
          raise "whoops!"
      return "hello world!"

  async fn raise_or_string(c: Bool) raises -> String:
      if c:
          raise "whoops!"
      return "hello world!"

  Note that async functions do not yet support indirect calls, ref results, and constructors.

• The Reference type (and many iterators) now use infer-only parameters to represent the mutability of their lifetime, simplifying the interface.

• The environment variable MOJO_PYTHON can be pointed to an executable to pin Mojo to a specific version:

  export MOJO_PYTHON="/usr/bin/python3.11"

  export MOJO_PYTHON="/usr/bin/python3.11"

  Or a virtual environment to always have access to those Python modules:

  export MOJO_PYTHON="~/venv/bin/python"

  export MOJO_PYTHON="~/venv/bin/python"

  MOJO_PYTHON_LIBRARY still exists for environments with a dynamic libpython but no Python executable.

• The pointer aliasing semantics of Mojo have changed. Initially, Mojo adopted a C-like set of semantics around pointer aliasing and derivation. However, the C semantics bring a lot of history and baggage that are not needed in Mojo and which complicate compiler optimizations. The language overall provides a stronger set of invariants around pointer aliasing with lifetimes and exclusive mutable references to values, etc.

  It is now forbidden to convert a non-pointer-typed value derived from a Mojo-allocated pointer, such as an integer address, to a pointer-typed value. "Derived" means there is overlap in the bits of the non-pointer-typed value with the original pointer value. Accordingly, the UnsafePointer constructor that took an address keyword argument has been removed.

  It is still possible to make this conversion in certain cases where it is absolutely necessary, such as interoperating with other languages like Python. In this case, the compiler makes two assumptions: any pointer derived from a non-pointer-typed value does not alias any Mojo-derived pointer and that any external function calls have arbitrary memory effects.

• await on a coroutine now consumes it. This strengthens the invariant that coroutines can be awaited only once.

Standard library changes

• builtin package:

  • The set of automatically imported entities (types, aliases, functions) into users' Mojo programs has been dramatically reduced. Before, with the way the builtin module was handled, all of the entities in the following modules would be automatically included:

    memory, sys, os, utils, python, bit, random, math, builtin, collections

    Now, only the explicitly enumerated entities in prelude/__init__.mojo are the ones automatically imported into users' Mojo programs. This will break a lot of user code as users will need to explicitly import what they're using for cases previously commonly included before (such as Optional, Variant, and functions such as abort(), alignof(), bitcast(), bitwidthof(), external_call(), simdwidthof(), and sizeof()).

  • Some types from the builtin module have been moved to different modules for clarity which is made possible now that we have a prelude module that can re-export symbols from modules other than builtin.

    In particular, the builtin.string module has been moved to collections.string.

• Input and output:

  • Added the builtin input() function, which behaves the same as Python. (PR #3392)

    name = input("Enter your name: ")
    print("Hello, " + name + "!")

    name = input("Enter your name: ")
    print("Hello, " + name + "!")

    If the user enters "Mojo" it returns "Hello, Mojo!"

    There is a known issue when running the input() function with JIT compilation (see issue #3479).

  • print() now requires that its arguments conform to the Formattable trait. This enables efficient stream-based writing by default, avoiding unnecessary intermediate String heap allocations.

    Previously, print() required types conform to Stringable. This meant that to execute a call like print(a, b, c), at least three separate String heap allocations were down, to hold the formatted values of a, b, and c respectively. The total number of allocations could be much higher if, for example, a.__str__() was implemented to concatenate together the fields of a, like in the following example:

    struct Point(Stringable):
        var x: Float64
        var y: Float64
    
        fn __str__(self) -> String:
            # Performs 3 allocations: 1 each for str(..) of each of the fields,
            # and then the final returned `String` allocation.
            return "(" + str(self.x) + ", " + str(self.y) + ")"

    struct Point(Stringable):
        var x: Float64
        var y: Float64
    
        fn __str__(self) -> String:
            # Performs 3 allocations: 1 each for str(..) of each of the fields,
            # and then the final returned `String` allocation.
            return "(" + str(self.x) + ", " + str(self.y) + ")"

    A type like the one above can transition to additionally implementing Formattable with the following changes:

    struct Point(Stringable, Formattable):
        var x: Float64
        var y: Float64
    
        fn __str__(self) -> String:
            return String.format_sequence(self)
    
        fn format_to(self, inout writer: Formatter):
            writer.write("(", self.x, ", ", self.y, ")")

    struct Point(Stringable, Formattable):
        var x: Float64
        var y: Float64
    
        fn __str__(self) -> String:
            return String.format_sequence(self)
    
        fn format_to(self, inout writer: Formatter):
            writer.write("(", self.x, ", ", self.y, ")")

    In the example above, String.format_sequence() is used to construct a String from a type that implements Formattable. This pattern of implementing a type's Stringable implementation in terms of its Formattable implementation minimizes boilerplate and duplicated code, while retaining backwards compatibility with the requirements of the commonly used str() function.

    The error shown when passing a type that does not implement Formattable to print() is currently not entirely descriptive of the underlying cause:

    error: invalid call to 'print': callee with non-empty variadic pack argument expects 0 positional operands, but 1 was specified
       print(point)
       ~~~~~^~~~~~~

    error: invalid call to 'print': callee with non-empty variadic pack argument expects 0 positional operands, but 1 was specified
       print(point)
       ~~~~~^~~~~~~

    If you see the above error, ensure that all argument types implement Formattable.

  • debug_assert() now also requires that its message argument conform to Formattable.

  • Added TemporaryDirectory in module tempfile. (PR 2743)

  • Added NamedTemporaryFile in module tempfile. (PR 2762)

• String and friends:

  • The builtin.string module has been moved to collections.string.

  • Added the String.format() method. (PR #2771)

    Supports automatic and manual indexing of *args.

    Examples:

    print(
      String("{1} Welcome to {0} {1}").format("mojo", "🔥")
    )
    # 🔥 Wecome to mojo 🔥

    print(
      String("{1} Welcome to {0} {1}").format("mojo", "🔥")
    )
    # 🔥 Wecome to mojo 🔥

    print(String("{} {} {}").format(True, 1.125, 2))
    #True 1.125 2

    print(String("{} {} {}").format(True, 1.125, 2))
    #True 1.125 2

  • String.format() now supports conversion flags !s and !r, allowing for str() and repr() conversions within format strings. (PR #3279)

    Example:

    String("{} {!r}").format("Mojo", "Mojo")
    # "Mojo 'Mojo'"
    
    String("{0!s} {0!r}").format("Mojo")
    # "Mojo 'Mojo'"

    String("{} {!r}").format("Mojo", "Mojo")
    # "Mojo 'Mojo'"
    
    String("{0!s} {0!r}").format("Mojo")
    # "Mojo 'Mojo'"

  • The String class now has rjust(), ljust(), and center() methods to return a justified string based on width and fillchar. (PR #3278)

  • The atol() function now correctly supports leading underscores, (e.g.atol("0x_ff", 0)), when the appropriate base is specified or inferred (base 0). non-base-10 integer literals as per Python's Integer Literals. (PR #3180)

  • Added the unsafe_cstr_ptr() method to String and StringLiteral, which returns an UnsafePointer[c_char] for convenient interoperability with C APIs.

  • Added the byte_length() method to String, StringSlice, and StringLiteral and deprecated their private _byte_length() methods. Added a warning to the String.__len__() method that it will return the length in Unicode codepoints in the future and StringSlice.__len__() now does return the Unicode codepoints length. (PR #2960)

  • Added a new StaticString type alias. This can be used in place of StringLiteral for runtime string arguments.

  • Added a StringSlice initializer that accepts a StringLiteral.

  • The StringRef constructors from DTypePointer.int8 have been changed to take a UnsafePointer[c_char], reflecting their use for compatibility with C APIs.

  • Continued the transition to UnsafePointer and unsigned byte type for strings:

    • String.unsafe_ptr() now returns an UnsafePointer[UInt8] (was UnsafePointer[Int8])

    • StringLiteral.unsafe_ptr() now returns an UnsafePointer[UInt8] (was UnsafePointer[Int8])

• UnsafePointer and other reference type changes:

  • DTypePointer, LegacyPointer, and Pointer have been removed. Use UnsafePointer instead. For more information on using pointers, see Unsafe pointers in the Mojo Manual.

    Functions that previously took a DTypePointer now take an equivalent UnsafePointer. A quick rule for conversion from DTypePointer to UnsafePointer is:

    DTypePointer[type] -> UnsafePointer[Scalar[type]]

    DTypePointer[type] -> UnsafePointer[Scalar[type]]

    There could be places that you have code of the form:

    fn f(ptr: DTypePointer):

    fn f(ptr: DTypePointer):

    which is equivalent to DTypePointer[*_]. In this case you would have to add an infer-only type parameter to the function:

    fn f[type: DType, //](ptr: UnsafePointer[Scalar[type]]):

    fn f[type: DType, //](ptr: UnsafePointer[Scalar[type]]):

    because we can’t have an unbound parameter inside the struct.

    There could also be places where you use DTypePointer[Scalar[DType.invalid/index]], and it would be natural to change these to UnsafePointer[NoneType/Int]. But since these are not an UnsafePointer that stores a Scalar, you might have to rebind/bitcast to appropriate types.

  • The DTypePointer load() and store() methods have been moved to UnsafePointer.

  • UnsafePointer now supports strided_load(), strided_store(), gather(), and scatter() when the underlying type is Scalar[DType].

  • The global functions for working with UnsafePointer have transitioned to being methods through the use of conditional conformances:

    • destroy_pointee(p) => p.destroy_pointee()
    • move_from_pointee(p) => p.take_pointee()
    • initialize_pointee_move(p, value) => p.init_pointee_move(value)
    • initialize_pointee_copy(p, value) => p.init_pointee_copy(value)
    • move_pointee(src=p1, dst=p2) => p.move_pointee_into(p2)

  • The UnsafePointer.offset() method is deprecated and will be removed in a future release. Use pointer arithmetic instead.

    new_ptr = ptr.offset(1)

    new_ptr = ptr.offset(1)

    Becomes:

    new_ptr = ptr + 1

    new_ptr = ptr + 1

  • UnsafePointer now has an alignment parameter to specify the static alignment of the pointer. Consequently, UnsafePointer.alloc() no longer takes in an alignment parameter, and the alignment should be specified in the type.

    UnsafePointer[type].alloc[alignment](x) # now becomes
    UnsafePointer[type, alignment].alloc(x)

    UnsafePointer[type].alloc[alignment](x) # now becomes
    UnsafePointer[type, alignment].alloc(x)

  • UnsafePointer has a new exclusive: Bool = False parameter. Setting this parameter to true tells the compiler that the user knows this pointer and all those derived from it have exclusive access to the underlying memory allocation. The compiler is not guaranteed to do anything with this information.

  • It is no longer possible to cast (implicitly or explicitly) from Reference to UnsafePointer. Instead of UnsafePointer(someRef) please use the UnsafePointer.address_of(someRef[]) which makes the code explicit that the UnsafePointer gets the address of what the reference points to.

• Python interoperability changes:

  • Mojo now supports Python 3.12 interoperability.

  • Creating a nested PythonObject from a list or tuple of Python objects is possible now:

    var np = Python.import_module("numpy")
    var a = np.array([1, 2, 3])
    var b = np.array([4, 5, 6])
    var arrays = PythonObject([a, b])
    assert_equal(len(arrays), 2)

    var np = Python.import_module("numpy")
    var a = np.array([1, 2, 3])
    var b = np.array([4, 5, 6])
    var arrays = PythonObject([a, b])
    assert_equal(len(arrays), 2)

    Also allowing more convenient call syntax:

    var stacked = np.hstack((a, b))
    assert_equal(str(stacked), "[1 2 3 4 5 6]")

    var stacked = np.hstack((a, b))
    assert_equal(str(stacked), "[1 2 3 4 5 6]")

    (PR #3264)

  • Accessing local Python modules with Python.add_to_path(".") is no longer required. It now behaves the same as Python. You can access modules in the same folder as the target file:

    • mojo run /tmp/main.mojo can access /tmp/mymodule.py

    • mojo build main.mojo -o ~/myexe && ~/myexe can access ~/mymodule.py

• Collections:

  • List values are now equality comparable with == and != when their element type is equality comparable. (PR #3195)

  • Optional values are now equality comparable with == and != when their element type is equality comparable.

  • Added a new Counter dictionary-like type, matching most of the features of the Python one. (PR #2910)

  • Dict now implements setdefault(), which gets a value from the dictionary by key, or sets it to a default if it doesn't exist. (PR #2803)

  • Dict now supports popitem(), which removes and returns the last item in the Dict. (PR #2701)

  • Added a Dict.__init__() overload to specify initial capacity. (PR #3171)

    The capacity has to be a power of two and greater than or equal to 8.

    It allows for faster initialization by skipping incremental growth steps.

    Example:

    var dictionary = Dict[Int,Int](power_of_two_initial_capacity = 1024)
    # Insert (2/3 of 1024) entries

    var dictionary = Dict[Int,Int](power_of_two_initial_capacity = 1024)
    # Insert (2/3 of 1024) entries

  • ListLiteral now supports __contains__(). (PR #3251)

• Filesystem and environment utilities:

  • Path.home() has been added to return a path of the user's home directory.

  • os.path.expanduser() and pathlib.Path.exapanduser() have been added to allow expanding a prefixed ~ in a String or Path with the user's home path:

    import os
    print(os.path.expanduser("~/.modular"))
    # /Users/username/.modular
    print(os.path.expanduser("~root/folder"))
    # /var/root/folder (on macos)
    # /root/folder     (on linux)

    import os
    print(os.path.expanduser("~/.modular"))
    # /Users/username/.modular
    print(os.path.expanduser("~root/folder"))
    # /var/root/folder (on macos)
    # /root/folder     (on linux)

  • os.path.split() has been added for splitting a path into head, tail:

    import os
    head, tail = os.path.split("/this/is/head/tail")
    print("head:", head)
    print("tail:", tail)
    # head: /this/is/head
    # tail: tail

    import os
    head, tail = os.path.split("/this/is/head/tail")
    print("head:", head)
    print("tail:", tail)
    # head: /this/is/head
    # tail: tail

  • os.makedirs() and os.removedirs() have been added for creating and removing nested directories:

    import os
    path = os.path.join("dir1", "dir2", "dir3")
    os.path.makedirs(path, exist_ok=True)
    os.path.removedirs(path)

    import os
    path = os.path.join("dir1", "dir2", "dir3")
    os.path.makedirs(path, exist_ok=True)
    os.path.removedirs(path)

  • The pwd module has been added for accessing user information in /etc/passwd on POSIX systems. This follows the same logic as Python:

    import pwd
    import os
    current_user = pwd.getpwuid(os.getuid())
    print(current_user)
    
    # pwd.struct_passwd(pw_name='jack', pw_passwd='********', pw_uid=501,
    # pw_gid=20, pw_gecos='Jack Clayton', pw_dir='/Users/jack',
    # pw_shell='/bin/zsh')
    
    print(current_user.pw_uid)
    
    # 501
    
    root = pwd.getpwnam("root")
    print(root)
    
    # pwd.struct_passwd(pw_name='root', pw_passwd='*', pw_uid=0, pw_gid=0,
    # pw_gecos='System Administrator', pw_dir='/var/root', pw_shell='/bin/zsh')

    import pwd
    import os
    current_user = pwd.getpwuid(os.getuid())
    print(current_user)
    
    # pwd.struct_passwd(pw_name='jack', pw_passwd='********', pw_uid=501,
    # pw_gid=20, pw_gecos='Jack Clayton', pw_dir='/Users/jack',
    # pw_shell='/bin/zsh')
    
    print(current_user.pw_uid)
    
    # 501
    
    root = pwd.getpwnam("root")
    print(root)
    
    # pwd.struct_passwd(pw_name='root', pw_passwd='*', pw_uid=0, pw_gid=0,
    # pw_gecos='System Administrator', pw_dir='/var/root', pw_shell='/bin/zsh')

• Other new traits and related features:

  • Added the ExplicitlyCopyable trait to mark types that can be copied explicitly, but which might not be implicitly copyable.

    This supports work to transition the standard library collection types away from implicit copyability, which can lead to unintended expensive copies.

  • Added the Identifiable trait, used to describe types that implement the __is__() and __isnot__() trait methods. (PR #2807)

  • Types conforming to Boolable (that is, those implementing __bool__()) no longer implicitly convert to Bool. A new ImplicitlyBoolable trait is introduced for types where this behavior is desired.

• Miscellaneous:

  • NoneType is now a normal standard library type, and not an alias for a raw MLIR type.

    Function signatures written as fn() -> NoneType should transition to being written as fn() -> None.

  • Mojo now has a UInt type for modeling unsigned (scalar) integers with a platform-dependent width. UInt implements most arithmetic operations that make sense for integers, with the notable exception of __neg__(). Builtin functions such as min()/max(), as well as math functions like ceildiv(), align_down(), and align_up() are also implemented for UInt.

  • Now that we have a UInt type, use this to represent the return type of a hash. In general, hashes should be an unsigned integer, and can also lead to improved performance in certain cases.

  • Added the c_char type alias in sys.ffi.

  • sort() now supports a stable parameter. It can be called by

    sort[cmp_fn, stable=True](list)

    sort[cmp_fn, stable=True](list)

    The algorithm requires $O(N)$ auxiliary memory. If extra memory allocation fails, the program crashs.

  • sort() no longer takes LegacyPointer since that type is now removed.

  • Added the oct() builtin function for formatting an integer in octal. (PR #2914)

  • Added the assert_is() and assert_is_not() test functions to the testing module.

  • The math package now includes the pi, e, and tau constants (Closes Issue #2135).

  • The ulp function from numerics has been moved to the math module.

  • bit module now supports bit_reverse(), byte_swap(), and pop_count() for the Int type. (PR #3150)

  • A few bit functions have been renamed for clarity:

    • countl_zero() -> count_leading_zeros()

    • countr_zero() -> count_trailing_zeros()

  • Slice now uses OptionalReg[Int] for start and end and implements a constructor which accepts optional values. Slice._has_end() has also been removed since a Slice with no end is now represented by an empty Slice.end option. (PR #2495)

      var s = Slice(1, None, 2)
      print(s.start.value()) # must retrieve the value from the optional

      var s = Slice(1, None, 2)
      print(s.start.value()) # must retrieve the value from the optional

  • The rank argument for algorithm.elementwise() is no longer required and is only inferred.

  • The time.now() function has been deprecated. Please use time.perf_counter() or time.perf_counter_ns instead.

  • SIMD construction from Bool has been restricted to DType.bool data type.

Tooling changes

• mojo test new features and changes:

  • mojo test now uses the Mojo compiler for running unit tests. This will resolve compilation issues that sometimes appeared, and will also improve overall test times, since we will only compile unit tests once before executing all of them.

    These changes do not apply to doctests, due to their different semantics.

  • The mojo test command now accepts a --filter option that will narrow the set of tests collected and executed. The filter string is a POSIX extended regular expression.

  • The mojo test command now supports using the same compilation options as mojo build.

  • You can now debug unit tests using mojo test by passing the --debug flag. Most debug flags are supported; run mojo test --help for a full listing.

    Debugging doctests is not currently supported.

• Mojo debugger new features and changes:

  • The mojo debug --rpc command has been renamed to mojo debug --vscode, which is now able to manage multiple VS Code windows.

  • The Mojo debugger now supports a break-on-raise command that indicated the debugger to stop at any raise statements. A similar features has been added to the debugger on VS Code.

  • The Mojo debugger now hides the artificial function arguments __result__ and __error__ created by the compiler for Mojo code.

• VS Code support changes:

  • The VS Code extension now supports a vendored MAX SDK for VS Code, which is automatically downloaded by the extension and it's used for all Mojo features, including the Mojo Language Server, the Mojo debugger, the Mojo formatter, and more.

  • A proxy has been added to the Mojo Language Server on VS Code that handles crashes more gracefully.

• The Mojo Language Server no longer sets . as a commit character for auto-completion.

❌ Removed

• Support for the legacy fn __init__(...) -> Self: form has been removed from the compiler, please switch to using fn __init__(inout self, ...): instead.

• The builtin tensor module has been removed. Identical functionality is available in max.tensor, but it is generally recommended to use structs from the buffer module when possible instead.

• Removed String.unsafe_uint8_ptr(). String.unsafe_ptr() now returns the same thing.

• Removed StringLiteral.unsafe_uint8_ptr() and StringLiteral.as_uint8_ptr().

• Removed SIMD.splat(value: Scalar[type]). Use the constructor for SIMD instead.

• Removed the SIMD.{add,mul,sub}_with_overflow() methods.

• Removed the SIMD.min() and SIMD.max() methods. Identical functionality is available using the builtin min() and max() functions.

• Removed the Mojo Language Server warnings for unused function arguments.

• Run Mojo File in Dedicated Terminal action has been removed, and the action Run Mojo File will always open a dedicated terminal for each mojo file to guarantee a correct environment.

🛠️ Fixed

• Fixed a crash in the Mojo Language Server when importing the current file.

• Fixed crash when specifying variadic keyword arguments without a type expression in def functions, e.g.:

  def foo(**kwargs): ...  # now works

  def foo(**kwargs): ...  # now works

• Mojo now prints ref arguments and results in generated documentation correctly.

• #1734 - Calling __copyinit__ on self causes crash.

• #3142 - [QoI] Confusing __setitem__ method is failing with a "must be mutable" error.

• #248 - [Feature] Enable __setitem__ to take variadic arguments

• #3065 - Fix incorrect behavior of SIMD.__int__ on unsigned types

• #3045 - Disable implicit SIMD conversion routes through Bool

• #3126 - [BUG] List doesn't work at compile time.

• #3237 - [BUG] Difference between __getitem__ and [.] operator.

• #3336 - Fix outdated references to let in REPL documentation.

• The VS Code extension no longer caches the information of the selected MAX SDK, which was causing issues upon changes in the SDK.

• The Mojo debugger now stops showing spurious warnings when parsing closures.

Special thanks

Special thanks to our community contributors: @jjvraw, @artemiogr97, @martinvuyk, @jayzhan211, @bgreni, @mzaks, @msaelices, @rd4com, @jiex-liu, @kszucs, @thatstoasty

v24.4 (2024-06-07)

✨ Highlights

Big themes for this release:

• Improvements to the performance and ease-of-use for def functions.

• Continued unification of standard library APIs around the UnsafePointer type.

• Many quality-of-life improvements for the standard library collection types.

• Significant performance improvements when inserting into a Dict. Performance on this metric is still not where we'd like it to be, but it is much improved.

• A new @parameter for mechanism for expressing compile-time loops, which replaces the earlier (and less reliable) @unroll decorator.

• New Mojo Manual pages on Control flow, Testing and using unsafe pointers.

Language changes

• Mojo has changed how def function arguments are processed. Previously, by default, arguments to a def were treated according to the owned convention, which makes a copy of the value, enabling that value to be mutable in the callee.

  This could lead to major performance issues because of the proliferation of unnecessary copies. It also required you to declare non-copyable types as borrowed explicitly. Now Mojo takes a different approach: def functions take arguments as borrowed by default (consistent with fn functions) but will make a local copy of the value only if the argument is mutated in the body of the function.

  This improves consistency, performance, and ease of use.

• Implicit variable definitions in a def function are more flexible: you can now implicitly declare variables as the result of a tuple return, using a,b,c = foo(). For example:

  def return_two(i: Int) -> (Int, Int):
    return i, i+1
  
  a, b = return_two(5)

  def return_two(i: Int) -> (Int, Int):
    return i, i+1
  
  a, b = return_two(5)

  Implicit variable declarations can also now shadow global immutable symbols (such as module names and built-ins) without getting a compiler error. For example:

  slice = foo()

  slice = foo()

• Mojo functions can return an auto-dereferenced reference to storage with a new ref keyword in the result type specifier. For example:

  @value
  struct Pair:
      var first: Int
      var second: Int
  
      fn get_first_ref(inout self) -> ref [self] Int:
          return self.first
  
  fn show_mutation():
      var somePair = Pair(5, 6)
      somePair.get_first_ref() = 1

  @value
  struct Pair:
      var first: Int
      var second: Int
  
      fn get_first_ref(inout self) -> ref [self] Int:
          return self.first
  
  fn show_mutation():
      var somePair = Pair(5, 6)
      somePair.get_first_ref() = 1

  This approach provides a general way to return an "automatically dereferenced" reference of a given type. Notably, this eliminates the need for __refitem__() to exist. __refitem__() has thus been removed and replaced with __getitem__() that returns a reference.

• Mojo added support for infer-only parameters. Infer-only parameters must appear at the beginning of the parameter list and cannot be explicitly specified by the user. They are declared to the left of a // marker, much like positional-only parameters. This allows programmers to define functions with dependent parameters to be called without the caller specifying all the necessary parameters. For example:

  fn parameter_simd[dt: DType, //, value: Scalar[dt]]():
      print(value)
  
  fn call_it():
      parameter_simd[Int32(42)]()

  fn parameter_simd[dt: DType, //, value: Scalar[dt]]():
      print(value)
  
  fn call_it():
      parameter_simd[Int32(42)]()

  In the above example, Int32(42) is passed directly into value, the first parameter that isn't infer-only. dt is inferred from the parameter itself to be DType.int32.

  This also works with structs. For example:

  struct ScalarContainer[dt: DType, //, value: Scalar[dt]]:
      pass
  
  fn foo(x: ScalarContainer[Int32(0)]): # 'dt' is inferred as `DType.int32`
      pass

  struct ScalarContainer[dt: DType, //, value: Scalar[dt]]:
      pass
  
  fn foo(x: ScalarContainer[Int32(0)]): # 'dt' is inferred as `DType.int32`
      pass

  This should make working with dependent parameters more ergonomic. See Infer-only parameters in the Mojo Manual.

• Mojo now allows functions overloaded on parameters to be resolved when forming references to, but not calling, those functions. For example, the following now works:

  fn overloaded_parameters[value: Int32]():
      pass
  
  fn overloaded_parameters[value: Float32]():
      pass
  
  fn form_reference():
      alias ref = overloaded_parameters[Int32()] # works!

  fn overloaded_parameters[value: Int32]():
      pass
  
  fn overloaded_parameters[value: Float32]():
      pass
  
  fn form_reference():
      alias ref = overloaded_parameters[Int32()] # works!

• Mojo now supports adding a @deprecated decorator on structs, functions, traits, aliases, and global variables. The decorator marks the attached declaration as deprecated and causes a warning to be emitted when the deprecated declaration is referenced in user code. The decorator requires a deprecation message, specified as a string literal.

  @deprecated("Foo is deprecated, use Bar instead")
  struct Foo:
      pass
  
  fn outdated_api(x: Foo): # warning: Foo is deprecated, use Bar instead
      pass
  
  @deprecated("use another function!")
  fn bar():
      pass
  
  fn techdebt():
      bar() # warning: use another function!

  @deprecated("Foo is deprecated, use Bar instead")
  struct Foo:
      pass
  
  fn outdated_api(x: Foo): # warning: Foo is deprecated, use Bar instead
      pass
  
  @deprecated("use another function!")
  fn bar():
      pass
  
  fn techdebt():
      bar() # warning: use another function!

• Mojo has introduced @parameter for, a new feature for compile-time programming. @parameter for defines a for loop where the sequence and the induction values in the sequence must be parameter values. For example:

  fn parameter_for[max: Int]():
      @parameter
      for i in range(max)
          @parameter
          if i == 10:
              print("found 10!")

  fn parameter_for[max: Int]():
      @parameter
      for i in range(max)
          @parameter
          if i == 10:
              print("found 10!")

  Currently, @parameter for requires the sequence's __iter__() method to return a _StridedRangeIterator, meaning the induction variables must be Int. The intention is to lift these restrictions in the future.

• The is_mutable parameter of Reference and AnyLifetime is now a Bool, not a low-level __mlir_type.i1 value.

  This improves the ergonomics of spelling out a Reference type explicitly.

• Mojo will now link to a Python dynamic library based on the Python on top of your search path: PATH. This enables you to activate a virtual environment like conda and have access to Python modules installed in that environment without setting MOJO_PYTHON_LIBRARY. Previously Mojo would find a libpython dynamic library on installation and put the path in .modular/modular.cfg, which could result in version conflicts if you activated a virtual environment of a different Python version.

• AnyRegType has been renamed to AnyTrivialRegType and Mojo now forbids binding non-trivial register-passable types to AnyTrivialRegType. This closes a major safety hole in the language. Please use AnyType for generic code going forward.

• The let keyword has been completely removed from the language. We previously removed let declarations but still provided an error message to users. Now, it is completely gone from the grammar.

Standard library changes

• New traits and related features:

  • Added built-in repr() function and Representable trait. (PR #2361)

  • Added the Indexer trait to denote types that implement the __index__() method which allows these types to be accepted in common __getitem__() and __setitem__() implementations, as well as allow a new built-in index() function to be called on them. Most standard library containers can now be indexed by any type that implements Indexer. For example:

    @value
    struct AlwaysZero(Indexer):
        fn __index__(self) -> Int:
            return 0
    
    struct MyList:
        var data: List[Int]
    
        fn __init__(inout self):
            self.data = List[Int](1, 2, 3, 4)
    
        fn __getitem__[T: Indexer](self, idx: T) -> Int:
            return self.data[index(idx)]
    
    print(MyList()[AlwaysZero()])  # prints `1`

    @value
    struct AlwaysZero(Indexer):
        fn __index__(self) -> Int:
            return 0
    
    struct MyList:
        var data: List[Int]
    
        fn __init__(inout self):
            self.data = List[Int](1, 2, 3, 4)
    
        fn __getitem__[T: Indexer](self, idx: T) -> Int:
            return self.data[index(idx)]
    
    print(MyList()[AlwaysZero()])  # prints `1`

    Types conforming to the Indexer trait are implicitly convertible to Int. This means you can write generic APIs that take Int instead of making them take a generic type that conforms to Indexer. For example:

    @value
    struct AlwaysZero(Indexer):
        fn __index__(self) -> Int:
            return 0
    
    @value
    struct Incrementer:
        fn __getitem__(self, idx: Int) -> Int:
            return idx + 1
    
    var a = Incrementer()
    print(a[AlwaysZero()])  # works and prints 1

    @value
    struct AlwaysZero(Indexer):
        fn __index__(self) -> Int:
            return 0
    
    @value
    struct Incrementer:
        fn __getitem__(self, idx: Int) -> Int:
            return idx + 1
    
    var a = Incrementer()
    print(a[AlwaysZero()])  # works and prints 1

    (PR #2685)

  • Added traits allowing user-defined types to be supported by various built-in and math functions.

    Function	Trait	Required method
    abs()	Absable	__abs__()
    pow()	Powable	__pow__()
    round()	Roundable	__round__()
    math.ceil	math.Ceilable	__ceil__()
    math.ceildiv	math.CeilDivable math.CeilDivableRaising	__ceildiv__()
    math.floor	math.Floorable	__floor__()
    math.trunc	Truncable	__trunc__()

    Notes:

    • Conforming to the Powable trait also means that the type can be used with the power operator (**).

    • For ceildiv(), structs can conform to either the CeilDivable trait or CeilDivableRaising trait.

    • Due to ongoing refactoring, the traits Ceilable, CeilDivable, Floorable, and Truncable do not appear in the API reference. They should be imported from the math module, except for Truncable which is (temporarily) available as a built-in trait and does not need to be imported.

    Example:

    from math import sqrt
    
    @value
    struct Complex2(Absable, Roundable):
        var re: Float64
        var im: Float64
    
        fn __abs__(self) -> Self:
            return Self(sqrt(self.re * self.re + self.im * self.im), 0.0)
    
        fn __round__(self) -> Self:
            return Self(round(self.re, 0), round(self.im, 0))
    
        fn __round__(self, ndigits: Int) -> Self:
            return Self(round(self.re, ndigits), round(self.im, ndigits))
    

    from math import sqrt
    
    @value
    struct Complex2(Absable, Roundable):
        var re: Float64
        var im: Float64
    
        fn __abs__(self) -> Self:
            return Self(sqrt(self.re * self.re + self.im * self.im), 0.0)
    
        fn __round__(self) -> Self:
            return Self(round(self.re, 0), round(self.im, 0))
    
        fn __round__(self, ndigits: Int) -> Self:
            return Self(round(self.re, ndigits), round(self.im, ndigits))
    

• Benchmarking:

  • The bencher module as part of the benchmark package is now public and documented. This module provides types such as Bencher which provides the ability to execute a Benchmark and allows for benchmarking configuration via the BenchmarkConfig struct.

• String and friends:

  • Breaking. Implicit conversion to String is now removed for builtin classes/types. Use str() explicitly to convert to String.

  • Added String.isspace() method conformant with Python's universal separators. This replaces the isspace() free function from the string module. (If you need the old function, it is temporarily available as _isspace(). It now takes a UInt8 but is otherwise unchanged.)

  • String.split() now defaults to whitespace and has Pythonic behavior in that it removes all adjacent whitespace by default.

  • String.strip(), lstrip() and rstrip() can now remove custom characters other than whitespace. In addition, there are now several useful aliases for whitespace, ASCII lower/uppercase, and so on. (PR #2555)

  • String now has a splitlines() method, which allows splitting strings at line boundaries. This method supports universal newlines and provides an option to retain or remove the line break characters. (PR #2810)

  • InlinedString has been renamed to InlineString to be consistent with other types.

  • StringRef now implements strip(), which can be used to remove leading and trailing whitespace. (PR #2683)

  • StringRef now implements startswith() and endswith(). (PR #2710)

  • Added a new StringSlice type, to replace uses of the unsafe StringRef type in standard library code.

    StringSlice is a non-owning reference to encoded string data. Unlike StringRef, a StringSlice is safely tied to the lifetime of the data it points to.

    • Added new as_string_slice() methods to String and StringLiteral.
    • Added StringSlice initializer from an UnsafePointer and a length in bytes.

  • Added a new as_bytes_slice() method to String and StringLiteral, which returns a Span of the bytes owned by the string.

  • Continued transition to UnsafePointer and unsigned byte type for strings:

    • Renamed String._as_ptr() to String.unsafe_ptr(), and changed return type to UnsafePointer (was DTypePointer).
    • Renamed StringLiteral.data() to StringLiteral.unsafe_ptr(), and changed return type to UnsafePointer (was DTypePointer).
    • InlineString.as_ptr() has been renamed to unsafe_ptr() and now returns an UnsafePointer[UInt8] (was DTypePointer[DType.int8]).
    • StringRef.data is now an UnsafePointer (was DTypePointer) and StringRef.unsafe_ptr() now returns an UnsafePointer[UInt8] (was DTypePointer[DType.int8]).

• Other built-ins:

  • The Slice.__len__() function has been removed and Slice no longer conforms to the Sized trait. This clarifies the ambiguity of the semantics: the length of a slice always depends on the length of the object being sliced. Users that need the existing functionality can use the Slice.unsafe_indices() method. This makes it explicit that this implementation does not check if the slice bounds are concrete or within any given object's length.

  • Added a built-in sort() function for lists of elements that conform to the ComparableCollectionElement trait.(PR #2609)

  • int() can now take a string and a specified base to parse an integer from a string: int("ff", 16) returns 255. Additionally, if a base of zero is specified, the string will be parsed as if it was an integer literal, with the base determined by whether the string contains the prefix "0x", "0o", or "0b". (PR #2273, fixes #2274)

  • Added the bin() built-in function to convert integral types into their binary string representation. (PR #2603)

  • Added the atof() built-in function, which can convert a String to a float64. (PR #2649)

  • You can now use the built-in any() and all() functions to check for truthy elements in a collection. Because SIMD.__bool__() is now constrained to size=1, You must explicitly use these to get the truthy value of a SIMD vector with more than one element. This avoids common bugs around implicit conversion of SIMD to Bool. (PR #2600)

    For example:

      fn truthy_simd():
          var vec = SIMD[DType.int32, 4](0, 1, 2, 3)
          if any(vec):
              print("any elements are truthy")
          if all(vec):
              print("all elements are truthy")

      fn truthy_simd():
          var vec = SIMD[DType.int32, 4](0, 1, 2, 3)
          if any(vec):
              print("any elements are truthy")
          if all(vec):
              print("all elements are truthy")

  • object now implements all the bitwise operators. (PR #2324)

  • Tuple now supports __contains__(). (PR #2709) For example:

    var x = Tuple(1, 2, True)
    if 1 in x:
        print("x contains 1")

    var x = Tuple(1, 2, True)
    if 1 in x:
        print("x contains 1")

  • ListLiteral and Tuple now only require that element types be Movable. Consequently, ListLiteral and Tuple are themselves no longer Copyable.

  • Added new ImmutableStaticLifetime and MutableStaticLifetime helpers.

• UnsafePointer and others:

  • Added new memcpy() overload for UnsafePointer[Scalar[_]] pointers.

  • Removed the get_null() method from UnsafePointer and other pointer types. Please use the default constructor instead: UnsafePointer[T]().

  • Many functions returning a pointer type have been unified to have a public API function of unsafe_ptr().

  • The Tensor.data() method has been renamed to unsafe_ptr(). The return type is still a DTypePointer[T].

• Collections:

  • List now has an index() method that allows you to find the (first) location of an element in a List of EqualityComparable types. For example:

    var my_list = List[Int](2, 3, 5, 7, 3)
    print(my_list.index(3))  # prints 1

    var my_list = List[Int](2, 3, 5, 7, 3)
    print(my_list.index(3))  # prints 1

  • List can now be converted to a String with a simplified syntax:

    var my_list = List[Int](2, 3)
    print(my_list.__str__())  # prints [2, 3]

    var my_list = List[Int](2, 3)
    print(my_list.__str__())  # prints [2, 3]

    Note that List doesn't conform to the Stringable trait yet so you cannot use str(my_list) yet. (PR #2673)

  • List has a simplified syntax to call the count() method: my_list.count(x). (PR #2675)

  • List() now supports __contains__(), so you can now use lists with the in operator:

    if x in my_list:

    if x in my_list:

    (PR #2667)

  • List now has an unsafe_get() to get the reference to an element without bounds check or wraparound for negative indices. Note that this method is unsafe. Use with caution. PR #2800

  • Added a fromkeys() method to Dict to return a Dict with the specified keys and values. (PR 2622)

  • Added a clear() method to Dict. (PR 2627)

  • Dict now supports reversed() for its items() and values() iterators. (PR #2340)

  • Dict now has a simplified conversion to String with my_dict.__str__(). Note that Dict does not conform to the Stringable trait so str(my_dict) is not possible yet. (PR #2674)

  • Dict now implements get(key) and get(key, default) functions. (PR #2519)

  • Added a temporary __get_ref(key) method to Dict, allowing you to get a Reference to a dictionary value.

  • Added a new InlineList type, a stack-allocated list with a static maximum size. (PR 2587#) (PR #2703)

  • Added a new Span type for taking slices of contiguous collections. (PR #2595)

• os module:

  • The os module now provides functionality for adding and removing directories using mkdir() and rmdir(). (PR #2430)

  • Added the os.path.getsize() function, which gives the size in bytes of the file identified by the path. (PR 2626)

  • Added os.path.join() function. (PR 2792)

  • Added a new tempfile module, with gettempdir() and mkdtemp() functions. (PR 2742)

• SIMD type:

  • Added SIMD.shuffle() with IndexList mask. (PR #2315)

  • SIMD.__bool__() is constrained such that it only works when size is 1. For SIMD vectors with more than one element, use any() or all(). (PR #2502)

  • The SIMD.reduce_or() and SIMD.reduce_and() methods are now bitwise operations, and support integer types. (PR #2671)

  • Added SIMD.__repr__() to get the verbose string representation of SIMD types. (PR #2728)

• math package:

  • The math.bit module has been moved to a new top-level bit module. The following functions in this module have been renamed:

    • ctlz -> countl_zero
    • cttz -> countr_zero
    • bit_length -> bit_width
    • ctpop -> pop_count
    • bswap -> byte_swap
    • bitreverse -> bit_reverse

  • The math.rotate_bits_left() and math.rotate_bits_right() functions have been moved to the bit module.

  • The is_power_of_2() function in the math module is now called is_power_of_two() and located in the bit module.

  • The abs(), round(), min(), max(), pow(), and divmod() functions have moved from math to builtin, so you no longer need to import these functions.

  • The math.tgamma() function has been renamed to math.gamma() to conform with Python's naming.

  • The implementation of the following functions have been moved from the math module to the new utils.numerics module: isfinite(), isinf(), isnan(), nan(), nextafter(), and ulp(). The functions continue to be exposed in the math module.

  • math.gcd() now works on negative inputs, and like Python's implementation, accepts a variadic list of integers. New overloads for a List or Spanof integers are also added. (PR #2777)

• Async and coroutines:

  • Coroutine now requires a lifetime parameter. This parameter is set automatically by the parser when calling an async function. It contains the lifetimes of all the arguments and any lifetime accesses by the arguments. This ensures that argument captures by async functions keep the arguments alive as long as the coroutine is alive.

  • Async function calls are no longer allowed to borrow non-trivial register-passable types. Because async functions capture their arguments but register-passable types don't have lifetimes (yet), Mojo is not able to correctly track the reference, making this unsafe. To cover this safety gap, Mojo has temporarily disallowed binding non-trivial register-passable types to borrowed arguments in async functions.

• Miscellaneous:

  • Added an InlineArray type that works on memory-only types. Compare with the existing StaticTuple type, which is conceptually an array type, but only works on AnyTrivialRegType. (PR #2294)

  • The base64 package now includes encoding and decoding support for both the Base64 and Base16 encoding schemes. (PR #2364) (PR #2584)

  • The take() function in Variant and Optional has been renamed to unsafe_take().

  • The get() function in Variant has been replaced by __getitem__(). That is, v.get[T]() should be replaced with v[T].

  • Various functions in the algorithm module are now built-in functions. This includes sort(), swap(), and partition(). swap() and partition() will likely shuffle around as we're reworking our built-in sort() function and optimizing it.

• infinity and NaN are now correctly handled in testing.assert_almost_equal() and an inf function has been added to utils/numerics.mojo. (PR #2375)

Tooling changes

• Invoking mojo package my-package -o my-dir on the command line, where my-package is a Mojo package source directory, and my-dir is an existing directory, now outputs a Mojo package to my-dir/my-package.mojopkg. Previously, this had to be spelled out, as in -o my-dir/my-package.mojopkg.

• The Mojo Language Server now reports a warning when a local variable is unused.

• Several mojo subcommands now support a --diagnostic-format option that changes the format with which errors, warnings, and other diagnostics are printed. By specifying --diagnostic-format json on the command line, errors and other diagnostics will be output in a structured JSON Lines format that is easier for machines to parse.

  The full list of subcommands that support --diagnostic-format is as follows: mojo build, mojo doc, mojo run, mojo package, and mojo test. Further, the mojo test --json option has been subsumed into this new option; for the same behavior, run mojo test --diagnostic-format json.

  Note that the format of the JSON output may change; we don't currently guarantee its stability across releases of Mojo.

• A new --validate-doc-strings option has been added to mojo to emit errors on invalid doc strings instead of warnings.

• The --warn-missing-doc-strings flag for mojo has been renamed to --diagnose-missing-doc-strings.

• A new decorator, @doc_private, was added that can be used to hide a declaration from being generated in the output of mojo doc. It also removes the requirement that the declaration has documentation (for example, when used with --diagnose-missing-doc-strings).

• Debugger users can now set breakpoints on function calls in O0 builds even if the call has been inlined by the compiler.

• The Mojo Language Server now supports renaming local variables.

Other changes

❌ Removed

• The @unroll decorator has been deprecated and removed. The decorator was supposed to guarantee that a decorated loop would be unrolled, or else the compiler would error. In practice, this guarantee was eroded over time, as a compiler-based approach cannot be as robust as the Mojo parameter system. In addition, the @unroll decorator did not make the loop induction variables parameter values, limiting its usefulness. Please see @parameter for for a replacement!

• The method object.print() has been removed. Since object now conforms to the Stringable trait, you can use print(my_object) instead.

• The following functions have been removed from the math module:

  • clamp(); use the new SIMD.clamp() method instead.
  • round_half_down() and round_half_up(); these can be trivially implemented using the ceil() and floor() functions.
  • add(), sub(), mul(), div(), mod(), greater(), greater_equal(), less(), less_equal(), equal(), not_equal(), logical_and(), logical_xor(), and logical_not(); Instead, users should rely directly on the corresponding operators (+, -, *, /, %, >, >=, <, <=, ==, !=, &, ^, and ~).
  • identity() and reciprocal(); users can implement these trivially.
  • select(); removed in favor of using SIMD.select() directly.
  • is_even() and is_odd(); these can be trivially implemented using bitwise & with 1.
  • roundeven(); the new SIMD.roundeven() method now provides the identical functionality.
  • div_ceil(); use the new ceildiv() function.
  • rotate_left() and rotate_right(); the same functionality is available in the builtin SIMD.rotate_{left,right}() methods for SIMD types, and the bit.rotate_bits_{left,right})() methods for Int.
  • An overload of math.pow() taking an integer parameter exponent.
  • align_down_residual(); it can be trivially implemented using align_down().
  • all_true(), any_true(), and none_true(); use SIMD.reduce_and() and SIMD.reduce_or() directly.
  • reduce_bit_count(); use the new SIMD.reduce_bit_count() directly.
  • rint() and nearbyint(); use round() or SIMD.roundeven() as appropriate.

• The EvaluationMethod has been removed from math.polynomial and Estrin's method is no longer available. This method was limited to degree 10 or less, underutilized, and its performance unclear. In the future, this might be reintroduced with an improved implementation if needed, when better performance benchmarking infrastructure is available. The default behavior of math.polynomial.polynomial_evaluate() is unchanged (Horner's method).

• The math.bit.select() and math.bit.bit_and() functions have been removed. The same functionality is available in the builtin SIMD.select and SIMD.__and__() methods, respectively.

• The math.limit module has been removed. The same functionality is available as follows:

  • math.limit.inf(): use utils.numerics.max_or_inf()
  • math.limit.neginf(): use utils.numerics.min_or_neg_inf()
  • math.limit.max_finite(): use utils.numerics.max_finite()
  • math.limit.min_finite(): use utils.numerics.min_finite()

• The tensor.random module has been removed. The same functionality is now accessible via the Tensor.rand() and Tensor.randn() static methods.

• The builtin SIMD struct no longer conforms to Indexer; users must explicitly cast Scalar values using int.

🛠️ Fixed

• #1837 Fix self-referential variant crashing the compiler.
• #2363 Fix LSP crashing on simple trait definitions.
• #1787 Fix error when using // on FloatLiteral in alias expression.
• Made several improvements to dictionary performance. Dicts with integer keys are most heavily affected, but large dicts and dicts with large values will also see large improvements.
• #2692 Fix assert_raises to include calling location.

Special thanks

Special thanks to our community contributors:

@rd4com, @toiletsandpaper, @helehex, @artemiogr97, @mikowals, @kernhanda, @lsh, @LJ-9801, @YichengDWu, @gabrieldemarmiesse, @fknfilewalker, @jayzhan211, @martinvuyk, @ChristopherLR, @mzaks, @bgreni, @Brian-M-J, @leandrolcampos

v24.3 (2024-05-02)

✨ Highlights

• AnyPointer was renamed to UnsafePointer and is now Mojo's preferred unsafe pointer type. It has several enhancements, including:

  • The element type can now be any type: it doesn't require Movable.

  • Because of this, the take_value(), emplace_value(), and move_into() methods have been changed to top-level functions and renamed. The new functions are:

    • initialize_pointee_copy
    • initialize_pointee_move
    • move_from_pointee()
    • move_pointee

  • A new destroy_pointee() function runs the destructor on the pointee.

  • UnsafePointer can be initialized directly from a Reference with UnsafePointer(someRef) and can convert to a reference with yourPointer[]. Both infer element type and address space. Note that when you convert a pointer to a reference, there's no way for Mojo to track the lifetime of the original value. So the resulting reference is no safer than the original pointer.

• All of the pointer types received some cleanup to make them more consistent, for example the unsafe.bitcast() global function is now a consistent bitcast() method on the pointers, which can convert element type and address space.

• Improvements to variadic arguments support.

  • Heterogeneous variadic pack arguments now work reliably even with memory types, and have a more convenient API to use, as defined by the VariadicPack type. For example, a simplified version of print can be implemented like this:

    fn print[T: Stringable, *Ts: Stringable](first: T, *rest: *Ts):
        print_string(str(first))
    
        @parameter
        fn print_elt[T: Stringable](a: T):
            print_string(" ")
            print_string(a)
        rest.each[print_elt]()

    fn print[T: Stringable, *Ts: Stringable](first: T, *rest: *Ts):
        print_string(str(first))
    
        @parameter
        fn print_elt[T: Stringable](a: T):
            print_string(" ")
            print_string(a)
        rest.each[print_elt]()

  • Mojo now supports declaring functions that have both optional and variadic arguments, both positional and keyword-only. For example, this now works:

    fn variadic_arg_after_default(
      a: Int, b: Int = 3, *args: Int, c: Int, d: Int = 1, **kwargs: Int
    ): ...

    fn variadic_arg_after_default(
      a: Int, b: Int = 3, *args: Int, c: Int, d: Int = 1, **kwargs: Int
    ): ...

    Positional variadic parameters also work in the presence of optional parameters. That is:

    fn variadic_param_after_default[e: Int, f: Int = 2, *params: Int]():
      pass

    fn variadic_param_after_default[e: Int, f: Int = 2, *params: Int]():
      pass

    Note that variadic keyword parameters are not supported yet.

  For more information, see Variadic arguments in the Mojo Manual.

• The mojo build and mojo run commands now support a -g option. This shorter alias is equivalent to writing --debug-level full. This option is also available in the mojo debug command, but is already the default.

• Many new standard library APIs have been filled in, including many community contributions. Changes are listed in the standard library section.

• The Mojo Manual has a new page on Types.

Language changes

• Certain dunder methods that take indices (__getitem__(), __setitem__(), and __refitem__()) or names (__getattr__() and __setattr__()) can now take the index or name as a parameter value instead of an argument value. This is enabled when you define one of these methods with no argument other than self (for a getter) or self and the set value (for a setter).

  This enables types that can only be subscripted into with parameters, as well as things like the following example, which passes the attribute name as a parameter so that attribute names can be checked at compile time.

  struct RGB:
     fn __getattr__[name: StringLiteral](self) -> Int:
         @parameter
         if name == "r":   return ...
         elif name == "g": return ...
         else:
             constrained[name == "b", "can only access with r, g, or b members"]()
             return ...
  
  var rgb = RGB()
  print(rgb.b) # Works
  print(rgb.q) # Compile error

  struct RGB:
     fn __getattr__[name: StringLiteral](self) -> Int:
         @parameter
         if name == "r":   return ...
         elif name == "g": return ...
         else:
             constrained[name == "b", "can only access with r, g, or b members"]()
             return ...
  
  var rgb = RGB()
  print(rgb.b) # Works
  print(rgb.q) # Compile error

• Mojo now allows users to capture the source location of code and call location of functions dynamically using the __source_location() and __call_location() functions. For example:

  from builtin._location import __call_location
  
  @always_inline
  fn my_assert(cond: Bool, msg: String):
      if not cond:
        var call_loc = __call_location()
        print("In", call_loc.file_name, "on line", str(call_loc.line) + ":", msg)
  
  fn main():
      my_assert(False, "always fails")  # some_file.mojo, line 193

  from builtin._location import __call_location
  
  @always_inline
  fn my_assert(cond: Bool, msg: String):
      if not cond:
        var call_loc = __call_location()
        print("In", call_loc.file_name, "on line", str(call_loc.line) + ":", msg)
  
  fn main():
      my_assert(False, "always fails")  # some_file.mojo, line 193

  This prints "In /path/to/some_file.mojo on line 193: always fails". Note that __call_location() only works in @always_inline or @always_inline("nodebug") functions. It gives incorrect results if placed in an @always_inline function that's called from an @always_inline("nodebug") function.

  This feature is still evolving and for the time being you need to explicitly import these APIs, as shown above. In the future, these will probably be built-in functions and not require an import statement.

  Neither __source_location() nor __call_location() work when called in a parameter context. For example:

  from builtin._location import __call_location
  
  @always_inline
  fn mystery_location() -> String:
      var loc = __call_location()
      return str(loc.file_name)
  
  def main():
      alias doesnt_work = mystery_location() # <unknown location in parameter context>

  from builtin._location import __call_location
  
  @always_inline
  fn mystery_location() -> String:
      var loc = __call_location()
      return str(loc.file_name)
  
  def main():
      alias doesnt_work = mystery_location() # <unknown location in parameter context>

Standard library changes

⭐️ New

• List has several new methods:

  • pop(index) for removing an element at a particular index. By default, List.pop() removes the last element in the list. (@LJ-9801, fixes #2017)

  • resize(new_size) for resizing the list without the need to specify an additional value. (@mikowals, fixes #2133)

  • insert(index, value) for inserting a value at a specified index into the List. (@whym1here, fixes #2134)

  • A new constructor List(ptr, size, capacity) to to avoid needing to do a deep copy of an existing contiguous memory allocation when constructing a new List. (@StandinKP, fixes #2170)

• Dict now has a update() method to update keys/values from another Dict. (@gabrieldemarmiesse)

• Set now has named methods for set operations:

  • difference() mapping to -
  • difference_update() mapping to -=
  • intersection_update() mapping to &=
  • update() mapping to |=

  (@arvindavoudi)

• Dict, List, and Set all conform to the Boolable trait. The collections evaluate to True if they contain any elements, False otherwise:

  def list_names(names: List[String]):
      if names:
          for name in names:
              print(name[])
      else:
          print("No names to list.")

  def list_names(names: List[String]):
      if names:
          for name in names:
              print(name[])
      else:
          print("No names to list.")

  (@gabrieldemarmiesse)

• Added reversed() function for creating reversed iterators. Several range types, List, and Dict now support iterating in reverse.

  var numbers = List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
  for number in reversed(numbers):
      print(number)

  var numbers = List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
  for number in reversed(numbers):
      print(number)

  (@helehex and @jayzhan211, contributes towards #2325)

• Optional now implements __is__ and __isnot__ methods so that you can compare an Optional with None. For example:

  var opt = Optional(1)
  if opt is not None:
      print(opt.value()[])

  var opt = Optional(1)
  if opt is not None:
      print(opt.value()[])

  (@gabrieldemarmiesse)

• Tuple now works with memory-only element types like String and allows you to directly index into it with a parameter expression. This means you can now simply use x = tup[1] like Python instead of x = tup.get[1, Int](). You can also assign into tuple elements now as well with tup[1] = x.

  var tuple = ("Green", 9.3)
  var name = tuple[0]
  var value = tuple[1]

  var tuple = ("Green", 9.3)
  var name = tuple[0]
  var value = tuple[1]

  Note that because the subscript must be a parameter expression, you can't iterate through a Tuple using an ordinary for loop.

• The Reference type has several changes, including:

  • It has moved to the memory.reference module instead of memory.unsafe.

  • Reference now has an unsafe_bitcast() method, similar to the pointer types.

  • Several unsafe methods were removed, including offset(), destroy_element_unsafe() and emplace_ref_unsafe(). This is because Reference is a safe type—use UnsafePointer to do unsafe operations.

• Bool can now be implicitly converted from any type conforming to the Boolable trait. This means that you no longer need to write code like this:

  @value
  struct MyBoolable:
    fn __bool__(self) -> Bool: ...
  
  fn takes_boolable[T: Boolable](cond: T): ...
  
  takes_boolable(MyBoolable())

  @value
  struct MyBoolable:
    fn __bool__(self) -> Bool: ...
  
  fn takes_boolable[T: Boolable](cond: T): ...
  
  takes_boolable(MyBoolable())

  Instead, you can simply write:

  fn takes_bool(cond: Bool): ...
  
  takes_bool(MyBoolable())

  fn takes_bool(cond: Bool): ...
  
  takes_bool(MyBoolable())

  Note that calls to takes_bool() will perform the implicit conversion, so in some cases is it still better to explicitly declare a type parameter, e.g.:

  fn takes_two_boolables[T: Boolable](a: T, b: T):
    # Short circuit means `b.__bool__()` might not be evaluated.
    if a.__bool__() and b.__bool__():
      ...

  fn takes_two_boolables[T: Boolable](a: T, b: T):
    # Short circuit means `b.__bool__()` might not be evaluated.
    if a.__bool__() and b.__bool__():
      ...

• PythonObject now conforms to the KeyElement trait, meaning that it can be used as key type for Dict. This allows you to easily build and interact with Python dictionaries in Mojo:

  def main():
      d = PythonObject(Dict[PythonObject, PythonObject]())
      d["foo"] = 12
      d[7] = "bar"
      d["foo"] = [1, 2, "something else"]
      print(d)  # prints `{'foo': [1, 2, 'something else'], 7: 'bar'}`

  def main():
      d = PythonObject(Dict[PythonObject, PythonObject]())
      d["foo"] = 12
      d[7] = "bar"
      d["foo"] = [1, 2, "something else"]
      print(d)  # prints `{'foo': [1, 2, 'something else'], 7: 'bar'}`

• FileHandle.seek() now has a whence argument that defaults to os.SEEK_SET to seek from the beginning of the file. You can now set to os.SEEK_CUR to offset by the current FileHandle seek position:

  var f = open("/tmp/example.txt")
  # Skip 32 bytes
  f.seek(os.SEEK_CUR, 32)

  var f = open("/tmp/example.txt")
  # Skip 32 bytes
  f.seek(os.SEEK_CUR, 32)

  Or os.SEEK_END to offset from the end of file:

  # Start from 32 bytes before the end of the file
  f.seek(os.SEEK_END, -32)

  # Start from 32 bytes before the end of the file
  f.seek(os.SEEK_END, -32)

• FileHandle.read() can now read straight into a DTypePointer:

  var file = open("/tmp/example.txt", "r")
  
  # Allocate and load 8 elements
  var ptr = DTypePointer[DType.float32].alloc(8)
  var bytes = file.read(ptr, 8)
  print("bytes read", bytes)
  print(ptr.load[width=8]())

  var file = open("/tmp/example.txt", "r")
  
  # Allocate and load 8 elements
  var ptr = DTypePointer[DType.float32].alloc(8)
  var bytes = file.read(ptr, 8)
  print("bytes read", bytes)
  print(ptr.load[width=8]())

• The sys module now contains an exit() function that would exit a Mojo program with the specified error code.

  from sys import exit
  
  exit(0)

  from sys import exit
  
  exit(0)

• The constructors for Tensor have been changed to be more consistent. As a result, constructors take the shape as the first argument (instead of the second) when constructing a tensor with pointer data.

  If you pass a single scalar value to the Tensor constructor, it now broadcasts the value to all elements in the tensor. For example, Tensor[DType.float32](TensorShape(2,2), 0) constructs a 2x2 tensor initialized with all zeros. This provides an easy way to fill in the data of a tensor.

• String now has removeprefix() and removesuffix() methods. (@gabrieldemarmiesse)

• The ord and chr functions have been improved to accept any Unicode character. (@mzaks, contributes towards #1616)

• atol() now handles whitespace. The atol()function is used internally by String.__int__(), so int(String( " 10 ")) now returns 10 instead of raising an error. (@artemiogr97)

• SIMD now implements the __rmod__() method. (@bgreni, fixes #1482)

• bool(None) is now implemented. (@zhoujingya)

• The DTypePointer type now implements gather() for gathering a SIMD vector from offsets of a current pointer. Similarly, support for scatter() was added to scatter a SIMD vector into offsets of the current pointer. (@leandrolcampos)

• The len() function now handles a range() specified with a negative end value, so that things like len(range(-1)) work correctly. (@soraros)

• debug_assert() now prints its location (filename, line, and column where it was called) in its error message. Similarly, the assert helpers in the testing module now include location information in their messages.

• The testing.assert_equal[SIMD]() function now raises if any of the elements mismatch in the two SIMD arguments being compared. (@gabrieldemarmiesse)

• The testing.assert_almost_equal() and math.isclose() functions now have an equal_nan flag. When set to True, then NaNs are considered equal.

• The object type now supports the division, modulo, and left and right shift operators, including the in-place and reverse variants. (@LJ-9801, fixes #2224)

• Added checked arithmetic operations for SIMD integers.

  SIMD integer types (including the sized integer scalars like Int64) can now perform checked additions, subtractions, and multiplications using the following new methods:

  • add_with_overflow()
  • sub_with_overflow()
  • mul_with_overflow()

  Checked arithmetic allows the caller to determine if an operation exceeded the numeric limits of the type. For example:

  var simd = SIMD[DType.int8, 4](7, 11, 13, 17)
  var product: SIMD[DType.int8, 4]
  var overflow: SIMD[DType.bool, 4]
  (product, overflow) = simd.mul_with_overflow(simd)
  for i in range(len(product)):
    if overflow[i]:
            print("<overflow>")
        else:
            print(product[i])

  var simd = SIMD[DType.int8, 4](7, 11, 13, 17)
  var product: SIMD[DType.int8, 4]
  var overflow: SIMD[DType.bool, 4]
  (product, overflow) = simd.mul_with_overflow(simd)
  for i in range(len(product)):
    if overflow[i]:
            print("<overflow>")
        else:
            print(product[i])

  (@lsh)

• Added os.remove() and os.unlink() for deleting files. (@artemiogr97, fixes #2306)

🦋 Changed

• The parallel_memcpy() function has moved from the buffer package to the algorithm package. Please update your imports accordingly.

• Optional.value() now returns a reference instead of a copy of the contained value.

  To perform a copy manually, dereference the result:

  var result = Optional(123)
  
  var value = result.value()[]

  var result = Optional(123)
  
  var value = result.value()[]

  (@lsh, fixes #2179)

• Per the accepted community proposal, Standardize the representation of byte sequence as a sequence of unsigned 8-bit integers, began transition to using UInt8 by changing the data pointer of Error to DTypePointer[DType.uint8]. (@gabrieldemarmiesse, contributes towards #2317)

• Continued transition to UnsafePointer from the legacy Pointer type in various standard library APIs and internals. (@gabrieldemarmiesse)

Tooling changes

• The behavior of mojo build when invoked without an output -o argument has changed slightly: mojo build ./test-dir/program.mojo now outputs an executable to the path ./program, whereas before it would output to the path ./test-dir/program.

• The mojo package command no longer supports the -D flag. All compilation environment flags should be provided at the point of package use (e.g. mojo run or mojo build).

• The REPL no longer allows type level variable declarations to be uninitialized, e.g. it will reject var s: String. This is because it does not do proper lifetime tracking (yet!) across cells, and so such code would lead to a crash. You can work around this by initializing to a dummy value and overwriting later. This limitation only applies to top level variables, variables in functions work as they always have.

Other changes

Low-level language changes

• A low-level __get_mvalue_as_litref(x) builtin was added to give access to the underlying memory representation as a !lit.ref value without checking initialization status of the underlying value. This is useful in very low-level logic but isn't designed for general usability and will likely change in the future.

• Properties can now be specified on inline MLIR ops:

  _ = __mlir_op.`kgen.source_loc`[
      _type = (
          __mlir_type.index, __mlir_type.index, __mlir_type.`!kgen.string`
      ),
      _properties = __mlir_attr.`{inlineCount = 1 : i64}`,
  ]()

  _ = __mlir_op.`kgen.source_loc`[
      _type = (
          __mlir_type.index, __mlir_type.index, __mlir_type.`!kgen.string`
      ),
      _properties = __mlir_attr.`{inlineCount = 1 : i64}`,
  ]()

  As the example shows above, the protected _properties attribute can be passed during op construction, with an MLIR DictionaryAttr value.

❌ Removed

• Support for "register only" variadic packs has been removed. Instead of AnyRegType, please upgrade your code to AnyType in examples like this:

  fn your_function[*Types: AnyRegType](*args: *Ts): ...

  fn your_function[*Types: AnyRegType](*args: *Ts): ...

  This move gives you access to a nicer API and has the benefit of being memory safe and correct for non-trivial types. If you need specific APIs on the types, please use the correct trait instead of AnyType.

• List.pop_back() has been removed. Use List.pop() instead which defaults to popping the last element in the list.

• SIMD.to_int(value) has been removed. Use int(value) instead.

• The __get_lvalue_as_address(x) magic function has been removed. To get a reference to a value use Reference(x) and if you need an unsafe pointer, you can use UnsafePointer.address_of(x).

🛠️ Fixed

• #516 and #1817 and many others, e.g. "Can't create a function that returns two strings."

• #1178 (os/kern) failure (5).

• #1609 alias with DynamicVector[Tuple[Int]] fails.

• #1987 Defining main in a Mojo package is an error, for now. This is not intended to work yet, erroring for now will help to prevent accidental undefined behavior.

• #1215 and #1949 The Mojo LSP server no longer cuts off hover previews for functions with functional arguments, parameters, or results.

• #1901 Fixed Mojo LSP and documentation generation handling of inout arguments.

• #1913 - 0__ no longer crashes the Mojo parser.

• #1924 JIT debugging on Mac has been fixed.

• #1941 Mojo variadic arguments don't work with non-trivial register-only types.

• #1963 a!=0 is now parsed and formatted correctly by mojo format.

• #1676 Fix a crash related to @value decorator and structs with empty body.

• #1917 Fix a crash after syntax error during tuple creation.

• #2006 The Mojo LSP now properly supports signature types with named arguments and parameters.

• #2007 and #1997 The Mojo LSP no longer crashes on certain types of closures.

• #1675 Ensure @value decorator fails gracefully after duplicate field error.

• #2068 Fix SIMD.reduce() for size_out == 2. (@soraros)

v24.2.1 (2024-04-11)

This release doesn't include any changes to Mojo.

v24.2 (2024-03-28)

🔥 Legendary

• The Mojo standard library is now open source! Check out the README for everything you need to get started.

• Structs and other nominal types are now allowed to implicitly conform to traits. A struct implicitly conforms to a trait if it implements all the requirements for the trait. For example, any struct that implements the __str__() method implicitly conforms to Stringable, and is usable with the str() built-in function.

  @value
  struct Foo:
      fn __str__(self) -> String:
          return "foo!"
  
  fn main():
      print(str(Foo())) # prints 'foo!'

  @value
  struct Foo:
      fn __str__(self) -> String:
          return "foo!"
  
  fn main():
      print(str(Foo())) # prints 'foo!'

  We still strongly encourage you to explicitly list the traits a struct conforms to when possible:

  @value
  struct Foo(Stringable): ...

  @value
  struct Foo(Stringable): ...

  Not only is this useful for documentation and for communicating intentions, but in the future, explicit conformance will be useful for features like default methods and extensions.

• Mojo's Python interoperability now supports passing keyword arguments to Python functions:

  from python import Python
  
  def main():
      plt = Python.import_module("matplotlib.pyplot")
      plt.plot((5, 10), (10, 15), color="red")
      plt.show()

  from python import Python
  
  def main():
      plt = Python.import_module("matplotlib.pyplot")
      plt.plot((5, 10), (10, 15), color="red")
      plt.show()

Language changes

⭐️ New

• Mojo now has support for variadic keyword arguments, often referred to as **kwargs. This means you can now declare and call functions like this:

  fn print_nicely(**kwargs: Int) raises:
    for key in kwargs.keys():
        print(key[], "=", kwargs[key[]])
  
   # prints:
   # `a = 7`
   # `y = 8`
  print_nicely(a=7, y=8)

  fn print_nicely(**kwargs: Int) raises:
    for key in kwargs.keys():
        print(key[], "=", kwargs[key[]])
  
   # prints:
   # `a = 7`
   # `y = 8`
  print_nicely(a=7, y=8)

  For more details (and a list of current limitations), see Variadic keyword arguments in the Mojo manual.

🦋 Changed or removed

• let declarations now produce a compile time error instead of a warning, our next step in removing let declarations. The compiler still recognizes the let keyword for now in order to produce a good error message, but that will be removed in subsequent releases.

• Mojo now warns about unused values in both def and fn declarations, instead of completely disabling the warning in defs. It never warns about unused object or PythonObject values, tying the warning to these types instead of the kind of function they are unused in. This will help catch API usage bugs in defs and make imported Python APIs more ergonomic in fns.

• For the time being, dynamic type values will be disabled in the language. For example, the following will now fail with an error:

  var t = Int  # dynamic type values not allowed
  
  struct SomeType: ...
  
  takes_type(SomeType)  # dynamic type values not allowed

  var t = Int  # dynamic type values not allowed
  
  struct SomeType: ...
  
  takes_type(SomeType)  # dynamic type values not allowed

  We want to take a step back and (re)design type valued variables, existentials, and other dynamic features. This does not affect type valued parameters, so the following works as before:

  alias t = Int  # still 🔥
  
  struct SomeType: ...
  
  takes_type[SomeType]()  # already 🔥
  
  >fn uses_trait[T: SomeTrait](value: T): ... # still 🔥

  alias t = Int  # still 🔥
  
  struct SomeType: ...
  
  takes_type[SomeType]()  # already 🔥
  
  >fn uses_trait[T: SomeTrait](value: T): ... # still 🔥

• The *_ expression in parameter expressions is now required to occur at the end of a positional parameter list, instead of being allowed in the middle.

  # No longer supported
  alias FirstUnbound = SomeStruct[*_, 42]
  alias MidUnbound   = SomeStruct[7, *_, 6]
  # Still supported
  alias LastUnbound  = SomeStruct[42, *_]

  # No longer supported
  alias FirstUnbound = SomeStruct[*_, 42]
  alias MidUnbound   = SomeStruct[7, *_, 6]
  # Still supported
  alias LastUnbound  = SomeStruct[42, *_]

  We narrowed this because we want to encourage type designers to get the order of parameters right, and want to extend *_ to support keyword parameters as well in the future.

Standard library changes

⭐️ New

• DynamicVector has been renamed to List, and has moved from the collections.vector module to the collections.list module. In addition:

  • You can now construct a List from a variadic number of values. For example:

    var numbers = List[Int](1, 2, 3)

    var numbers = List[Int](1, 2, 3)

  • List and InlinedFixedVector types now support negative indexing. This means that you can write vec[-1] which is equivalent to vec[len(vec)-1].

  • List.push_back() has been removed. Please use the append() function instead.

• The print() function now takes sep and end keyword arguments. This means that you can write:

  print("Hello", "Mojo", sep=", ", end="!!!\n") # prints Hello, Mojo!!!

  print("Hello", "Mojo", sep=", ", end="!!!\n") # prints Hello, Mojo!!!

  sep defaults to the empty string and end defaults to "\n".

  Also, the print_no_newline() function has been removed. Please use print(end="") instead.

• The FloatLiteral type is now an infinite-precision nonmaterializable type. This means you can do compile-time calculations using FloatLiteral without rounding errors. When materialized at runtime, a FloatLiteral value is converted to a Float64.

  # third is an infinite-precision FloatLiteral value
  alias third = 1.0 / 3.0
  # t is a Float64
  var t = third

  # third is an infinite-precision FloatLiteral value
  alias third = 1.0 / 3.0
  # t is a Float64
  var t = third

• String types all conform to the IntableRaising trait. This means that you can now call int("123") to get the integer 123. If the integer cannot be parsed from the string, then an error is raised.

• The Tensor type now has argmax() and argmin() functions to compute the position of the max or min value. Note: this should return a Tensor[Int] but currently the output tensor is the same type as the input tensor. This will be fixed in a future release.

• Added a new collections.OptionalReg type, a register-passable alternative to Optional.

• The ulp() function has been added to the math module. This allows you to get the units of least precision (or units of last place) of a floating point value.

🦋 Changed

• The simd_load(), simd_store(), aligned_simd_load(), and aligned_simd_store() methods on DTypePointer, Buffer, and NDBuffer have been merged into a more expressive set of load() and store() methods with keyword-only width and alignment parameters:

  # Doesn't work
  my_simd = my_buffer.simd_load[simd_width](index)
  # Works
  my_simd = my_buffer.load[width=simd_width](index)
  # Doesn't work
  my_buffer.aligned_simd_store[width, alignment](my_simd)
  # Works
  my_buffer.store[width=width, alignment=alignment](my_simd)

  # Doesn't work
  my_simd = my_buffer.simd_load[simd_width](index)
  # Works
  my_simd = my_buffer.load[width=simd_width](index)
  # Doesn't work
  my_buffer.aligned_simd_store[width, alignment](my_simd)
  # Works
  my_buffer.store[width=width, alignment=alignment](my_simd)

• The EqualityComparable trait now requires the __ne__() method for conformance in addition to the previously required __eq__() method.

• Many types now declare conformance to EqualityComparable trait.

• StaticTuple parameter order has changed to StaticTuple[type, size] for consistency with SIMD and similar collection types.

• The signature of the elementwise() function has been changed. The new order is is function, simd_width, and then rank. As a result, the rank parameter can now be inferred and one can call elementwise() without it:

  elementwise[func, simd_width](shape)

  elementwise[func, simd_width](shape)

• PythonObject is now register-passable.

• PythonObject.__iter__() now works correctly on more types of iterable Python objects. Attempting to iterate over non-iterable objects will now raise an exception instead of behaving as if iterating over an empty sequence. __iter__() also now borrows self rather than requiring inout, allowing code like:

  for value in my_dict.values():
    ...

  for value in my_dict.values():
    ...

🚚 Moved

• We took the opportunity to rehome some modules into their correct package as we were going through the process of open-sourcing the Mojo standard library. Specifically, the following are some breaking changes worth calling out. Please update your import statements accordingly.

  • Buffer, NDBuffer, and friends have moved from the memory package into a new buffer package.

    from buffer import Buffer, NDBuffer

    from buffer import Buffer, NDBuffer

  • utils.list, including the Dim and DimList types, has moved to the buffer package.

    from buffer import Dim, DimList

    from buffer import Dim, DimList

  • The parallel_memcpy() function has moved from the memory package into the buffer package.

    from buffer import parallel_memcpy

    from buffer import parallel_memcpy

  • The rand() and randn() functions from the random package that return a Tensor have moved to the tensor package. Note that the overloads that write to a DTypePointer remain in the random package.

    If you happen to be using both versions in the same source file, you can import them both using the import as syntax:

    from tensor import rand
    from random import rand as rand_dt

    from tensor import rand
    from random import rand as rand_dt

  • The trap() function has been renamed to abort(). It also has moved from the debug module to the os module.

    from os import abort

    from os import abort

  • The isinf() and isfinite() methods have been moved from math.limits to the math module.

    from math import ininf, isfinite

    from math import ininf, isfinite

Tooling changes

⭐️ New

• Docstring code blocks can now use %# to hide lines of code from documentation generation.

  For example:

  var value = 5
  %# print(value)

  var value = 5
  %# print(value)

  Will generate documentation of the form:

  var value = 5

  var value = 5

  Hidden lines are processed as if they were normal code lines during test execution. This allows for writing additional code within a docstring example that is only used to ensure the example is runnable/testable.

• The Mojo LSP server now allow you to specify additional search paths to use when resolving imported modules in a document. You can specify search paths on the command line, using the -I option, or you can add them to the mojo.lsp.includeDirs setting in the VS Code extension.

Other changes

❌ Removed

• The __get_address_as_lvalue magic function has been removed. You can now get an LValue from a Pointer or Reference by using the dereference operator ([]):

  var ptr: Pointer[MyRecord]
  ...
  # Doesn't work
  __get_address_as_lvalue(ptr.value) = MyRecord(3, 5)
  # Works
  ptr[] = MyRecord(3, 5)

  var ptr: Pointer[MyRecord]
  ...
  # Doesn't work
  __get_address_as_lvalue(ptr.value) = MyRecord(3, 5)
  # Works
  ptr[] = MyRecord(3, 5)

• The type parameter for the memcpy function is now automatically inferred. This means that calls to memcpy of the form memcpy[Dtype.xyz](...) will no longer work and the user would have to change the code to memcpy(...).

• The memcpy() overload that worked on Buffer types has been removed in favor of just overloads for Pointer and DTypePointer:

  # Doesn't work
  memcpy(destBuffer, srcBuffer, count)
  # Works
  memcpy(destBuffer.data, srcBuffer.data, count)

  # Doesn't work
  memcpy(destBuffer, srcBuffer, count)
  # Works
  memcpy(destBuffer.data, srcBuffer.data, count)

• The functions max_or_inf(), min_or_neginf() have been removed from math.limit. These functions were only used by the SIMD type.

• As mentioned previously, the print_no_newline() function has been removed. Please use print(end="") instead.

🛠️ Fixed

• #1362 - Parameter inference now recursively matches function types.
• #951 - Functions that were both async and @always_inline incorrectly errored.
• #1858 - Trait with parametric methods regression.
• #1892 - Forbid unsupported decorators on traits.
• #1735 - Trait-typed values are incorrectly considered equal.
• #1909 - Crash due to nested import in unreachable block.
• #1921 - Parser crashes binding Reference to lvalue with subtype lifetime.
• #1945 - Optional[T].or_else() should return T instead of Optional[T].
• #1940 - Constrain math.copysign to floating point or integral types.
• #1838 - Variadic print does not work when specifying end=""
• #1826 - The SIMD.reduce methods correctly handle edge cases where size_out >= size.

v24.1.1 (2024-03-18)

This release includes installer improvements and enhanced error reporting for installation issues. Otherwise it is functionally identical to Mojo 24.1.

v24.1 (2024-02-29)

🔥 Legendary

• Mojo is now bundled with the MAX platform!

  As such, the Mojo package version now matches the MAX version, which follows a YY.MAJOR.MINOR version scheme. Because this is our first release in 2024, that makes this version 24.1.

• Mojo debugging support is here! The Mojo VS Code extension includes debugger support. For details, see Debugging in the Mojo Manual.

⭐️ New

• We now have a Set type in our collections! Set is backed by a Dict, so it has fast add, remove, and in checks, and requires member elements to conform to the KeyElement trait.

  from collections import Set
  
  var set = Set[Int](1, 2, 3)
  print(len(set))  # 3
  set.add(4)
  
  for element in set:
      print(element[])
  
  set -= Set[Int](3, 4, 5)
  print(set == Set[Int](1, 2))  # True
  print(set | Set[Int](0, 1) == Set[Int](0, 1, 2))  # True
  let element = set.pop()
  print(len(set))  # 1

  from collections import Set
  
  var set = Set[Int](1, 2, 3)
  print(len(set))  # 3
  set.add(4)
  
  for element in set:
      print(element[])
  
  set -= Set[Int](3, 4, 5)
  print(set == Set[Int](1, 2))  # True
  print(set | Set[Int](0, 1) == Set[Int](0, 1, 2))  # True
  let element = set.pop()
  print(len(set))  # 1

• Mojo now supports the x in y expression as syntax sugar for y.__contains__(x) as well as x not in y.

• Mojo now has support for keyword-only arguments and parameters. For example:

  fn my_product(a: Int, b: Int = 1, *, c: Int, d: Int = 2):
      print(a * b * c * d)
  
  my_product(3, c=5)     # prints '30'
  my_product(3, 5, d=7)  # error: missing 1 required keyword-only argument: 'c'

  fn my_product(a: Int, b: Int = 1, *, c: Int, d: Int = 2):
      print(a * b * c * d)
  
  my_product(3, c=5)     # prints '30'
  my_product(3, 5, d=7)  # error: missing 1 required keyword-only argument: 'c'

  This includes support for declaring signatures that use both variadic and keyword-only arguments/parameters. For example, the following is now possible:

  fn prod_with_offset(*args: Int, offset: Int = 0) -> Int:
      var res = 1
      for i in range(len(args)):
          res *= args[i]
      return res + offset
  
  print(prod_with_offset(2, 3, 4, 10))         # prints 240
  print(prod_with_offset(2, 3, 4, offset=10))  # prints 34

  fn prod_with_offset(*args: Int, offset: Int = 0) -> Int:
      var res = 1
      for i in range(len(args)):
          res *= args[i]
      return res + offset
  
  print(prod_with_offset(2, 3, 4, 10))         # prints 240
  print(prod_with_offset(2, 3, 4, offset=10))  # prints 34

  Note that variadic keyword-only arguments/parameters (for example, **kwargs) are not supported yet. That is, the following is not allowed:

  fn variadic_kw_only(a: Int, **kwargs): ...

  fn variadic_kw_only(a: Int, **kwargs): ...

  For more information, see Positional-only and keyword-only arguments in the Mojo Manual.

• The print() function now accepts a keyword-only argument for the end which is useful for controlling whether a newline is printed or not after printing the elements. By default, end defaults to "\n" as before.

• The Mojo SDK can now be installed on AWS Graviton instances.

• A new version of the Mojo Playground is available. The new playground is a simple interactive editor for Mojo code, similar to the Rust Playground or Go Playground. The old JupyterLab based playground will remain online until March 20th.

• The Mojo LSP server will now generate fixits for populating empty documentation strings:

  fn foo(arg: Int):
      """""" # Unexpected empty documentation string

  fn foo(arg: Int):
      """""" # Unexpected empty documentation string

  Applying the fixit from above will generate:

  fn foo(arg: Int):
      """[summary].
  
      Args:
          arg: [description].
      """

  fn foo(arg: Int):
      """[summary].
  
      Args:
          arg: [description].
      """

• Added new *_ syntax that allows users to explicitly unbind any number of positional parameters. For example:

  struct StructWithDefault[a: Int, b: Int, c: Int = 8, d: Int = 9]: pass
  
  alias all_unbound = StructWithDefault[*_]
  # equivalent to
  alias all_unbound = StructWithDefault[_, _, _, _]
  
  alias first_bound = StructWithDefault[5, *_]
  # equivalent to
  alias first_bound = StructWithDefault[5, _, _, _]
  
  alias last_bound = StructWithDefault[*_, 6]
  # equivalent to
  alias last_bound = StructWithDefault[_, _, _, 6]
  
  alias mid_unbound = StructWithDefault[3, *_, 4]
  # equivalent to
  alias mid_unbound = StructWithDefault[3, _, _, 4]

  struct StructWithDefault[a: Int, b: Int, c: Int = 8, d: Int = 9]: pass
  
  alias all_unbound = StructWithDefault[*_]
  # equivalent to
  alias all_unbound = StructWithDefault[_, _, _, _]
  
  alias first_bound = StructWithDefault[5, *_]
  # equivalent to
  alias first_bound = StructWithDefault[5, _, _, _]
  
  alias last_bound = StructWithDefault[*_, 6]
  # equivalent to
  alias last_bound = StructWithDefault[_, _, _, 6]
  
  alias mid_unbound = StructWithDefault[3, *_, 4]
  # equivalent to
  alias mid_unbound = StructWithDefault[3, _, _, 4]

  As demonstrated above, this syntax can be used to explicitly unbind an arbitrary number of parameters, at the beginning, at the end, or in the middle of the operand list. Since these unbound parameters must be explicitly specified at some point, default values for these parameters are not applied. For example:

  alias last_bound = StructWithDefault[*_, 6]
  # When using last_bound, you must specify a, b, and c. last_bound
  # doesn't have a default value for `c`.
  var s = last_bound[1, 2, 3]()

  alias last_bound = StructWithDefault[*_, 6]
  # When using last_bound, you must specify a, b, and c. last_bound
  # doesn't have a default value for `c`.
  var s = last_bound[1, 2, 3]()

  For more information see the Mojo Manual sections on partially-bound types and automatic parameterization of functions.

• DynamicVector now supports iteration. Iteration values are instances of Reference and require dereferencing:

  var v: DynamicVector[String]()
  v.append("Alice")
  v.append("Bob")
  v.append("Charlie")
  for x in v:
      x[] = str("Hello, ") + x[]
  for x in v:
      print(x[])

  var v: DynamicVector[String]()
  v.append("Alice")
  v.append("Bob")
  v.append("Charlie")
  for x in v:
      x[] = str("Hello, ") + x[]
  for x in v:
      print(x[])

• DynamicVector now has reverse() and extend() methods.

• The mojo package command now produces compilation agnostic packages. Compilation options such as O0, or --debug-level, are no longer needed or accepted. As a result, packages are now smaller, and extremely portable.

• Initializers for @register_passable values can (and should!) now be specified with inout self arguments just like memory-only types:

  @register_passable
  struct YourPair:
      var a: Int
      var b: Int
      fn __init__(inout self):
          self.a = 42
          self.b = 17
      fn __copyinit__(inout self, existing: Self):
          self.a = existing.a
          self.b = existing.b

  @register_passable
  struct YourPair:
      var a: Int
      var b: Int
      fn __init__(inout self):
          self.a = 42
          self.b = 17
      fn __copyinit__(inout self, existing: Self):
          self.a = existing.a
          self.b = existing.b

  This form makes the language more consistent, more similar to Python, and easier to implement advanced features for. There is also no performance impact of using this new form: the compiler arranges to automatically return the value in a register without requiring you to worry about it.

  The older -> Self syntax is still supported in this release, but will be removed in a subsequent one, so please migrate your code. One thing to watch out for: a given struct should use one style or the other, mixing some of each won't work well.

• The inout self initializer form is required for initializers of @register_passable types that may raise errors:

  @register_passable
  struct RaisingCtor:
      fn __init__(inout self) raises:
          raise

  @register_passable
  struct RaisingCtor:
      fn __init__(inout self) raises:
          raise

• async functions that may raise errors have been temporarily disabled in this build. The implementation of Mojo async is undergoing a rework 🚧.

• The standard library slice type has been renamed to Slice, and a slice function has been introduced. This makes Mojo closer to Python and makes the Slice type follow the naming conventions of other types like Int.

• "Slice" syntax in subscripts is no longer hard coded to the builtin slice type: it now works with any type accepted by a container's __getitem__() method. For example:

  @value
  struct UnusualSlice:
      var a: Int
      var b: Float64
      var c: String
  
  struct YourContainer:
      fn __getitem__(self, slice: UnusualSlice) -> T: ...

  @value
  struct UnusualSlice:
      var a: Int
      var b: Float64
      var c: String
  
  struct YourContainer:
      fn __getitem__(self, slice: UnusualSlice) -> T: ...

  Given this implementation, you can subscript into an instance of YourContainer like yc[42:3.14:"🔥"] and the three values are passed to the UnusualSlice constructor.

• The __refitem__() accessor method may now return a Reference instead of having to return an MLIR internal reference type.

• Added AnyPointer.move_into() method, for moving a value from one pointer memory location to another.

• Added built-in hex() function, which can be used to format any value whose type implements the Intable trait as a hexadecimal string.

• PythonObject now implements __is__ and __isnot__ so that you can use expressions of the form x is y and x is not y with PythonObject.

• PythonObject now conforms to the SizedRaising trait. This means the built-in len() function now works on PythonObject.

• The os package now contains the stat() and lstat() functions.

• A new os.path package now allows you to query properties on paths.

• The os package now has a PathLike trait. A struct conforms to the PathLike trait by implementing the __fspath__() function.

• The pathlib.Path now has functions to query properties of the path.

• The listdir() method now exists on pathlib.Path and also exists in the os module to work on PathLike structs. For example, the following sample lists all the directories in the /tmp directory:

  from pathlib import Path
  
  fn walktree(top: Path, inout files: DynamicVector[Path]):
      try:
          var ls = top.listdir()
          for i in range(len(ls)):
              var child = top / ls[i]
              if child.is_dir():
                  walktree(child, files)
              elif child.is_file():
                  files.append(child)
              else:
                  print("Skipping '" + str(child) + "'")
      except:
          return
  
  fn main():
      var files = DynamicVector[Path]()
  
      walktree(Path("/tmp"), files)
  
      for i in range(len(files)):
          print(files[i])

  from pathlib import Path
  
  fn walktree(top: Path, inout files: DynamicVector[Path]):
      try:
          var ls = top.listdir()
          for i in range(len(ls)):
              var child = top / ls[i]
              if child.is_dir():
                  walktree(child, files)
              elif child.is_file():
                  files.append(child)
              else:
                  print("Skipping '" + str(child) + "'")
      except:
          return
  
  fn main():
      var files = DynamicVector[Path]()
  
      walktree(Path("/tmp"), files)
  
      for i in range(len(files)):
          print(files[i])

• The find(), rfind(), count(), and __contains__() methods now work on string literals. This means that you can write:

  if "Mojo" in "Hello Mojo":
      ...

  if "Mojo" in "Hello Mojo":
      ...

• Breakpoints can now be inserted programmatically within the code using the builtin breakpoint() function.

  Note: on Graviton instances, the debugger might not be able to resume after hitting this kind of breakpoint.

• Added a builtin Boolable trait that describes a type that can be represented as a boolean value. To conform to the trait, a type must implement the __bool__() method.

• Modules within packages can now use purely relative from imports:

  from . import another_module

  from . import another_module

• Trivial types, like MLIR types and function types, can now be bound implicitly to traits that require copy constructors or move constructors, such as Movable, Copyable, and CollectionElement.

• A new magic __origin_of(expr) call will yield the lifetime of a memory value. We hope and expect that this will eventually be replaced by Reference(expr).lifetime as the parameter system evolves, but this is important in the meantime for use in function signatures.

• A new magic __type_of(expr) call will yield the type of a value. This allows one to refer to types of other variables. For example:

  fn my_function(x: Int, y: __type_of(x)) -> Int:
      let z: __type_of(x) = y
      return z

  fn my_function(x: Int, y: __type_of(x)) -> Int:
      let z: __type_of(x) = y
      return z

🦋 Changed

• As another step towards removing let declarations we have removed support for let declarations inside the compiler. To ease migration, we parse let declarations as a var declaration so your code won't break. We emit a warning about this, but please switch your code to using var explicitly, because this migration support will be removed in a subsequent update.

  fn test():
      # treated as a var, but please update your code!
      let x = 42  # warning: 'let' is being removed, please use 'var' instead
      x = 9

  fn test():
      # treated as a var, but please update your code!
      let x = 42  # warning: 'let' is being removed, please use 'var' instead
      x = 9

• It is no longer possible to explicitly specify implicit argument parameters in automatically parameterized functions. This ability was an oversight and this is now an error:

  fn autoparameterized(x: SIMD):
      pass
  
  autoparameterized[DType.int32, 1](3) # error: too many parameters

  fn autoparameterized(x: SIMD):
      pass
  
  autoparameterized[DType.int32, 1](3) # error: too many parameters

• vectorize_unroll has been removed, and vectorize now has a parameter named unroll_factor with a default value of 1. Increasing unroll_factor may improve performance at the cost of binary size. See the loop unrolling blog here for more details.

• The vectorize signatures have changed with the closure func moved to the first parameter:

  vectorize[func, width, unroll_factor = 1](size)
  vectorize[func, width, size, unroll_factor = 1]()

  vectorize[func, width, unroll_factor = 1](size)
  vectorize[func, width, size, unroll_factor = 1]()

  The doc string has been updated with examples demonstrating the difference between the two signatures.

• The unroll signatures have changed with the closure func moved to the first parameter:

  unroll[func, unroll_count]()

  unroll[func, unroll_count]()

• The signature of the NDBuffer and Buffer types have changed. Now, both take the type as the first parameter and no longer require the shape parameter. This allows you to use these types and have sensible defaults. For example:

  NDBuffer[DType.float32, 3]

  NDBuffer[DType.float32, 3]

  is equivalent to

  NDBuffer[DType.float32, 3, DimList.create_unknown[3]()]

  NDBuffer[DType.float32, 3, DimList.create_unknown[3]()]

  Users can still specify the static shape (if known) to the type:

  NDBuffer[DType.float32, 3, DimList(128, 128, 3)]

  NDBuffer[DType.float32, 3, DimList(128, 128, 3)]

• The error message for missing function arguments is improved: instead of describing the number of arguments (e.g. callee expects at least 3 arguments, but 1 was specified) the missing arguments are now described by name (e.g. missing 2 required positional arguments: 'b', 'c').

• The CollectionElement trait is now a built-in trait and has been removed from collections.vector.

• The DynamicVector(capacity: Int) constructor has been changed to take capacity as a keyword-only argument to prevent implicit conversion from Int.

• Variant.get[T]() now returns a Reference to the value rather than a copy.

• The String methods tolower() and toupper() have been renamed to str.lower() and str.upper().

• The ref and mutref identifiers are no longer reserved as Mojo keywords. We originally thought about using those as language sugar for references, but we believe that generic language features combined with the Reference type will provide a good experience without dedicated sugar.

🛠️ Fixed

• #435 Structs with Self type don't always work.
• #1540 Crash in register_passable self referencing struct.
• #1664 - Improve error message when StaticTuple is constructed with a negative size for the number of elements.
• #1679 - crash on SIMD of zero elements.
• Various crashes on invalid code: #1230, #1699, #1708
• #1223 - Crash when parametric function is passed as (runtime) argument. The parser now errors out instead.
• #1530 - Crash during diagnostic emission for parameter deduction failure.
• #1538 and #1607 - Crash when returning type value instead of instance of expected type. This is a common mistake and the error now includes a hint to point users to the problem.
• #1613 - Wrong type name in error for incorrect self argument type in trait method declaration.
• #1670 - Crash on implicit conversion in a global variable declaration.
• #1741 - Mojo documentation generation doesn't show inout/owned on variadic arguments.
• #1621 - VS Code does not highlight raises and capturing in functional type expressions.
• #1617 - VS Code does not highlight fn in specific contexts.
• #1740 - LSP shows unrelated info when hovering over a struct.
• #1238 - File shadows Mojo package path.
• #1429 - Crash when using nested import statement.
• #1322 - Crash when missing types in variadic argument.
• #1314 - Typecheck error when binding alias to parametric function with default argument.
• #1248 - Crash when importing from file the same name as another file in the search path.
• #1354 - Crash when importing from local package.
• #1488 - Crash when setting generic element field.
• #1476 - Crash in interpreter when calling functions in parameter context.
• #1537 - Crash when copying parameter value.
• #1546 - Modify nested vector element crashes parser.
• #1558 - Invalid import causes parser to crash.
• #1562 - Crash when calling parametric type member function.
• #1577 - Crash when using unresolved package as a variable.
• #1579 - Member access into type instances causes a crash.
• #1602 - Interpreter failure when constructing strings at compile time.
• #1696 - Fixed an issue that caused syntax highlighting to occasionally fail.
• #1549 - Fixed an issue when the shift amount is out of range in SIMD.shift_left and SIMD.shift_right.

v0.7.0 (2024-01-25)

⭐️ New

• A new Mojo-native dictionary type, Dict for storing key-value pairs. Dict stores values that conform to the CollectionElement trait. Keys need to conform to the new KeyElement trait, which is not yet implemented by other standard library types. In the short term, you can create your own wrapper types to use as keys. For example, the following sample defines a StringKey type and uses it to create a dictionary that maps strings to Int values:

  from collections.dict import Dict, KeyElement
  
  @value
  struct StringKey(KeyElement):
      var s: String
  
      fn __init__(inout self, owned s: String):
          self.s = s ^
  
      fn __init__(inout self, s: StringLiteral):
          self.s = String(s)
  
      fn __hash__(self) -> Int:
          return hash(self.s)
  
      fn __eq__(self, other: Self) -> Bool:
          return self.s == other.s
  
  fn main() raises:
      var d = Dict[StringKey, Int]()
      d["cats"] = 1
      d["dogs"] = 2
      print(len(d))         # prints 2
      print(d["cats"])      # prints 1
      print(d.pop("dogs"))  # prints 2
      print(len(d))         # prints 1

  from collections.dict import Dict, KeyElement
  
  @value
  struct StringKey(KeyElement):
      var s: String
  
      fn __init__(inout self, owned s: String):
          self.s = s ^
  
      fn __init__(inout self, s: StringLiteral):
          self.s = String(s)
  
      fn __hash__(self) -> Int:
          return hash(self.s)
  
      fn __eq__(self, other: Self) -> Bool:
          return self.s == other.s
  
  fn main() raises:
      var d = Dict[StringKey, Int]()
      d["cats"] = 1
      d["dogs"] = 2
      print(len(d))         # prints 2
      print(d["cats"])      # prints 1
      print(d.pop("dogs"))  # prints 2
      print(len(d))         # prints 1

  We plan to add KeyElement conformance to standard library types in subsequent releases.

• Users can opt-in to assertions used in the standard library code by specifying -D MOJO_ENABLE_ASSERTIONS when invoking mojo to compile your source file(s). In the case that an assertion is fired, the assertion message will be printed along with the stack trace before the program exits. By default, assertions are not enabled in the standard library right now for performance reasons.

• The Mojo Language Server now implements the References request. IDEs use this to provide support for Go to References and Find All References. A current limitation is that references outside of the current document are not supported, which will be addressed in the future.

• The sys.info module now includes num_physical_cores(), num_logical_cores(), and num_performance_cores() functions.

• Homogeneous variadic arguments consisting of memory-only types, such as String are more powerful and easier to use. These arguments are projected into a VariadicListMem.

  (Previous releases made it easier to use variadic lists of register-passable types, like Int.)

  Subscripting into a VariadicListMem now returns the element instead of an obscure internal type. In addition, we now support inout and owned variadic arguments:

  fn make_worldly(inout *strs: String):
      # This "just works" as you'd expect!
      for i in range(len(strs)):
          strs[i] += " world"
  fn main():
      var s1: String = "hello"
      var s2: String = "konnichiwa"
      var s3: String = "bonjour"
      make_worldly(s1, s2, s3)
      print(s1)  # hello world
      print(s2)  # konnichiwa world
      print(s3)  # bonjour world

  fn make_worldly(inout *strs: String):
      # This "just works" as you'd expect!
      for i in range(len(strs)):
          strs[i] += " world"
  fn main():
      var s1: String = "hello"
      var s2: String = "konnichiwa"
      var s3: String = "bonjour"
      make_worldly(s1, s2, s3)
      print(s1)  # hello world
      print(s2)  # konnichiwa world
      print(s3)  # bonjour world

  (Previous releases made it easier to use variadic lists, but subscripting into a VariadicListMem returned a low-level pointer, which required the user to call __get_address_as_lvalue() to access the element.)

  Note that subscripting the variadic list works nicely as above, but iterating over the variadic list directly with a for loop produces a Reference (described below) instead of the desired value, so an extra subscript is required; We intend to fix this in the future.

  fn make_worldly(inout *strs: String):
      # Requires extra [] to dereference the reference for now.
      for i in strs:
          i[] += " world"

  fn make_worldly(inout *strs: String):
      # Requires extra [] to dereference the reference for now.
      for i in strs:
          i[] += " world"

  Heterogeneous variadic arguments have not yet been moved to the new model, but will in future updates.

  Note that for variadic arguments of register-passable types like Int, the variadic list contains values, not references, so the dereference operator ([]) is not required. This code continues to work as it did previously:

  fn print_ints(*nums: Int):
      for num in nums:
          print(num)
      print(len(nums))

  fn print_ints(*nums: Int):
      for num in nums:
          print(num)
      print(len(nums))

• Mojo now has a prototype version of a safe Reference type. The compiler's lifetime tracking pass can reason about references to safely extend local variable lifetime, and check indirect access safety. The Reference type is brand new (and currently has no syntactic sugar) so it must be explicitly dereferenced with an empty subscript: ref[] provides access to the underlying value.

  fn main():
      var a: String = "hello"
      var b: String = " references"
  
      var aref = Reference(a)
      aref[] += b
      print(a)  # prints "hello references"
  
      aref[] += b
      # ^last use of b, it is destroyed here.
  
      print(aref[]) # prints "hello references references"
      # ^last use of a, it is destroyed here.

  fn main():
      var a: String = "hello"
      var b: String = " references"
  
      var aref = Reference(a)
      aref[] += b
      print(a)  # prints "hello references"
  
      aref[] += b
      # ^last use of b, it is destroyed here.
  
      print(aref[]) # prints "hello references references"
      # ^last use of a, it is destroyed here.

  While the Reference type has the same in-memory representation as a C pointer or the Mojo Pointer type, it also tracks a symbolic "lifetime" value so the compiler can reason about the potentially accessed set of values. This lifetime is part of the static type of the reference, so it propagates through generic algorithms and abstractions built around it.

  The Reference type can form references to both mutable and immutable memory objects, e.g. those on the stack or borrowed/inout/owned function arguments. It is fully parametric over mutability, eliminating the problems with code duplication due to mutability specifiers and provides the base for unified user-level types. For example, it could be used to implement an array slice object that handles both mutable and immutable array slices.

  While this is a major step forward for the lifetimes system in Mojo, it is still very early and awkward to use. Notably, there is no syntactic sugar for using references, such as automatic dereferencing. Several aspects of it need to be more baked. It is getting exercised by variadic memory arguments, which is why they are starting to behave better now.

  Note: the safe Reference type and the unsafe pointer types are defined in the same module, currently named memory.unsafe. We expect to restructure this module in a future release.

• Mojo now allows types to implement __refattr__() and __refitem__() to enable attribute and subscript syntax with computed accessors that return references. For common situations where these address a value in memory this provides a more convenient and significantly more performant alternative to implementing the traditional get/set pairs. Note: this may be changed in the future when references auto-dereference—at that point we may switch to just returning a reference from __getattr__().

• Parametric closures can now capture register passable typed values by copy using the __copy_capture decorator. For example, the following code will print 5, not 2.

  fn foo(x: Int):
      var z = x
  
      @__copy_capture(z)
      @parameter
      fn formatter() -> Int:
          return z
      z = 2
      print(formatter())
  
  fn main():
      foo(5)

  fn foo(x: Int):
      var z = x
  
      @__copy_capture(z)
      @parameter
      fn formatter() -> Int:
          return z
      z = 2
      print(formatter())
  
  fn main():
      foo(5)

• String now implements KeyElement and may be used as a key in Dict.

• More robust support for structs with fields of self referencing types. For example, the following code will work and print 0:

  struct Foo(CollectionElement):
      var vec: DynamicVector[Self]
  
      fn __init__(inout self: Self):
          self.vec = DynamicVector[Self]()
  
      fn __moveinit__(inout self: Self, owned existing: Self):
          self.vec = existing.vec ^
  
      fn __copyinit__(inout self: Self, existing: Self):
          self.vec = existing.vec
  
  fn main():
      var foo = Foo()
      print(len(foo.vec))

  struct Foo(CollectionElement):
      var vec: DynamicVector[Self]
  
      fn __init__(inout self: Self):
          self.vec = DynamicVector[Self]()
  
      fn __moveinit__(inout self: Self, owned existing: Self):
          self.vec = existing.vec ^
  
      fn __copyinit__(inout self: Self, existing: Self):
          self.vec = existing.vec
  
  fn main():
      var foo = Foo()
      print(len(foo.vec))

❌ Removed

• The __takeinit__ special constructor form has been removed from the language. This "non-destructive move" operation was previously wired into the x^ transfer operator, but had unpredictable behavior that wasn't consistent. Now that Mojo has traits, it is better to model this as an explicit .take() operation on a type, which would transfer out the contents of the type without ending its lifetime. For example, for a type that holds a pointer, take() might return a new instance pointing to the same data, and null out its own internal pointer.

  This change makes it clear when a lifetime is ended versus when the contents of an LValue are explicitly taken.

• The current implementation of autotuning has been deprecated, as Mojo's autotuning implementation is undergoing a redesign. Tutorials around the current implementation have also been removed as they are being rewritten.

  Consequently, the autotune(), autotune_fork(), and search() functions have been removed from the standard library.

• The _OldDynamicVector type that worked only on register passable element types has been removed. Please migrate uses to DynamicVector which works on both register passable and memory types.

• The UnsafeFixedVector in utils.vector has been removed. We recommend using either DynamicVector or InlinedFixedVector instead.

• The @adaptive decorator has been removed from the language. Any uses of the decorator in a non-search context can be replaced with @parameter if. For example:

  @adaptive
  fn foo[a: Bool]():
      constrained[a]()
      body1()
  
  @adaptive
  fn foo[a: Bool]():
      constrained[not a]()
      body2()

  @adaptive
  fn foo[a: Bool]():
      constrained[a]()
      body1()
  
  @adaptive
  fn foo[a: Bool]():
      constrained[not a]()
      body2()

  Can be rewritten as:

  fn foo[a: Bool]():
      @parameter
      if a:
          body1()
      else:
          body2()

  fn foo[a: Bool]():
      @parameter
      if a:
          body1()
      else:
          body2()

  Consequently, the special __adaptive_set attribute has been removed as well.

• Result parameters have been removed from Mojo. Result parameter declarations in function parameter lists are no longer allowed, nor are forward alias declarations. This includes removing the param_return statement.

• The @noncapturing and @closure decorators have been removed due to refinements and improvements to the closure model. See below for more details!

🦋 Changed

• The Mojo closure model has been refined to be more straightforward and safe. Mojo has two closure types: parameter closures and runtime closures. Parameter closures can be used in higher-order functions and are the backbone of functions like vectorize and parallelize. They are always denoted by @parameter and have type fn() capturing -> T (where T is the return type).

  On the other hand, runtime closures are always dynamic values, capture values by invoking their copy constructor, and retain ownership of their capture state. You can define a runtime closure by writing a nested function that captures values:

  fn outer(b: Bool, x: String) -> fn() escaping -> None:
      fn closure():
          print(x) # 'x' is captured by calling String.__copyinit__
  
      fn bare_function():
          print("hello") # nothing is captured
  
      if b:
          # closure can be safely returned because it owns its state
          return closure^
  
      # function pointers can be converted to runtime closures
      return bare_function

  fn outer(b: Bool, x: String) -> fn() escaping -> None:
      fn closure():
          print(x) # 'x' is captured by calling String.__copyinit__
  
      fn bare_function():
          print("hello") # nothing is captured
  
      if b:
          # closure can be safely returned because it owns its state
          return closure^
  
      # function pointers can be converted to runtime closures
      return bare_function

  The type of runtime closures are of the form fn() escaping -> T. You can pass equivalent function pointers as runtime closures.

  Stay tuned for capture list syntax for move capture and capture by reference, and a more unified closure model!

• The @unroll(n) decorator can now take a parameter expression for the unroll factor, i.e. n can be a parameter expression that is of integer type.

• The cpython module in the python package has been moved to be an internal module, i.e, _cpython.

• AnyType and Destructable have been unified into a single trait, AnyType. Every nominal type (i.e. all structs) now automatically conform to AnyType.

• Previously, the mojo package command would output a Mojo package that included both partly-compiled Mojo code, as well as fully-compiled machine code for a specific computer architecture -- the architecture of the machine being used to invoke the mojo package command.

  Now, mojo package only includes partly-compiled Mojo code. It is only fully compiled for the specific computer architecture being used at the point that the package is first import-ed. As a result, Mojo packages are smaller and more portable.

• The simd_width and dtype parameters of polynomial_evaluate have been switched. Based on the request in #1587, the polynomial_evaluate function has also been extended so that the coefficients parameter can take either a either a StaticTuple or a VariadicList.

• As a tiny step towards removing let declarations, this release removes the warning: 'var' was never mutated, consider switching to a 'let'.

🛠️ Fixed

• #1595 - Improve error message when trying to materialize IntLiteral in runtime code.
• Raising an error from the initializer of a memory-only type now works correctly in the presence of complex control flow. Previously Mojo could run the destructor on self before it was initialized when exiting with an error.
• #1096 - Improve warning messages for dead code in conditionals like or expressions.
• #1419 - Fix assertion failure with uninitialized lattice values.
• #1402 - Fix movable trait not detected on recursive struct implemented with AnyPointer.
• #1399 - Fix parser crash when a parameter type in a struct that implements a trait is misspelled.
• #1152 - Allow mutable self argument when overloading operators using dunder methods.
• #1493 - Fix crash in DynamicVector copy constructor in certain situations.
• #1316 - The benchmark.keep function now properly handles vector types.
• #1505 - The simd.shuffle operation now works on 64 element permutations.
• #1355 - Fix String.find() returning wrong value when starting index is non-zero.
• #1367 - Fix String.replace() returning incorrect results for multi-character search strings.
• #1535 - Invalid error field 'w.x.y' destroyed out of the middle of a value, preventing the overall value from being destroyed.
• #1475 - Assertion failure in nested loop.
• #1591 - Assertion failure when using AnyType struct member.
• #1503 - Rename the mojo build of LLDB to mojo-lldb, to prevent name collisions with the system's LLDB.
• #1542 - @unroll does not accept alias as unroll factor.
• #1443 - Compiler crash on variadic list of traits.
• #1604 - Variable of trivial type not destroyed by transferring ownership.
• #1341 - Segmentation fault when passing closures around.
• #217 - Closure state is stack allocated.

v0.6.1 (2023-12-18)

⭐️ New

• The Mojo REPL now provides limited support for the %cd magic command.

  This command automatically maintains an internal stack of directories you visit during the REPL session. Usage:

  • %cd 'dir': change to directory dir and push it on the directory stack.
  • %cd -: pop the directory stack and change to the last visited directory.

• Structs decorated with @value now automatically conform to the Movable and Copyable built-in traits.

• String now has new toupper() and tolower() methods analogous, respectively, to Python's str.toupper() and str.tolower().

• Added a hash() built-in function and Hashable trait for types implementing the __hash__() method. Future releases will add Hashable support to Standard Library types. In the meantime, the hash module includes a version of the hash() function that works on arbitrary byte strings. To generate hashes for SIMD types, you use the internal _hash_simd() function:

  from builtin.hash import _hash_simd
  
  fn gen_simd_hash():
      let vector = SIMD[DType.int64, 4](1, 2, 3, 4)
      let hash = _hash_simd(vector)

  from builtin.hash import _hash_simd
  
  fn gen_simd_hash():
      let vector = SIMD[DType.int64, 4](1, 2, 3, 4)
      let hash = _hash_simd(vector)

• Several standard library types now conform to the CollectionElement trait. These types include Bool, StringLiteral, DynamicVector, Tensor, TensorShape, and TensorSpec.

🦋 Changed

• utils.vector has been moved to a new collections package to make space for new collections. This means that if you had previous code that did from utils.vector import DynamicVector, it now needs to be from collections.vector import DynamicVector due to the move.

• The special destructor method __del__() has been changed to enforce that it cannot raise an error. Raising destructors are not supported properly at the moment.

🛠️ Fixed

• #1421 - Fixed a crash when using Tuples in the REPL.

• #222 - Generate an error for obviously self recursive functions.

• #1408 - Fix overload resolution when candidates can return generic types.

• #1413 and #1395 - Do not crash when re-declaring a builtin declaration.

• #1307 - Fix compatibility of function signatures that only differ in default argument values.

• #1380 - Fix printing of empty String.

v0.6.0 (2023-12-04)

🔥 Legendary

• Traits have arrived!

  You can now define a trait, which consists of a required set of method prototypes. A struct can conform to the trait by implementing these methods. This lets you write generic functions that work on any structs that conform to a given trait.

  The following section gives a brief overview of traits—see the Mojo Manual and this traits blog post for more details!

  Traits are declared with the trait keyword. The bodies of traits should contain method signatures declared with ... as their bodies. Default method implementations are not supported yet.

  trait SomeTrait:
      fn required_method(self, x: Int): ...

  trait SomeTrait:
      fn required_method(self, x: Int): ...

  The trait can be implemented on a struct by inheriting from it.

  struct SomeStruct(SomeTrait):
      fn required_method(self, x: Int):
          print("hello traits", x)

  struct SomeStruct(SomeTrait):
      fn required_method(self, x: Int):
          print("hello traits", x)

  You can then write a generic functions that accepts any type that conforms to the trait. You do this by creating a parameterized function with a trait-typed parameter:

  fn fun_with_traits[T: SomeTrait](x: T):
      x.required_method(42)

  fn fun_with_traits[T: SomeTrait](x: T):
      x.required_method(42)

  Which can be invoked with instances of types that conform to the trait:

  var thing = SomeStruct()
  # Infer the parameter `T`!
  fun_with_traits(thing)

  var thing = SomeStruct()
  # Infer the parameter `T`!
  fun_with_traits(thing)

  Traits can also inherit from other traits, which simply requires that implementers of the child trait also conform to all parent traits.

  trait Parent:
      fn parent_func(self): ...
  
  trait Child(Parent):
      fn child_func(self): ...

  trait Parent:
      fn parent_func(self): ...
  
  trait Child(Parent):
      fn child_func(self): ...

  Then, both child and parent trait methods can be invoked on instances of the trait Child. As well, an instance of the child trait can be converted to an instance of the parent trait.

  fn the_parents[T: Parent](x: T):
      x.parent_func()
  
  fn the_children[T: Child](x: T):
      x.child_func()
      x.parent_func()
      # Upcast `x` from instance of `Child` to `Parent`.
      the_parents(x)

  fn the_parents[T: Parent](x: T):
      x.parent_func()
  
  fn the_children[T: Child](x: T):
      x.child_func()
      x.parent_func()
      # Upcast `x` from instance of `Child` to `Parent`.
      the_parents(x)

  For more information, see the Traits page in the Mojo Manual.

• A fundamental Destructable trait has been added to the language. This is a core trait that every trait automatically conforms to. This enables destruction of generic types and generic collections.

  Note: We're aware that this trait might be better spelled Destructible. We're planning on removing it in the future and moving its functionality to AnyType so that any type that doesn't provide its own destructor will have a default, no-op destructor.

• We've added some traits to the standard library, you can implement these on your own types:

  • Destructable
  • Copyable
  • Movable
  • Stringable
  • Intable
  • Sized
  • CollectionElement

• We added built-in len(), str(), and int() functions, which work with types that implement the Sized, Stringable, and Intable traits, respectively.

• DynamicVector is now a proper generic collection that can use any type that implements the Movable and Copyable traits. This means you can now write, for example, DynamicVector[String]. Also, DynamicVector now invokes its element destructors upon destruction, so _del_old has been deleted.

• print now works on any types that implement Stringable by invoking their __str__ method:

  @value
  struct BoxedInt(Stringable):
      var value: Int
  
      fn __str__(self) -> String:
          return self.value
  
  print(BoxedInt(11), "hello traits!", BoxedInt(42))

  @value
  struct BoxedInt(Stringable):
      var value: Int
  
      fn __str__(self) -> String:
          return self.value
  
  print(BoxedInt(11), "hello traits!", BoxedInt(42))

⭐️ New

• The Mojo Manual is an all-new, complete Mojo user guide. It doesn't include everything about Mojo yet, but it includes a lot, and more than the original programming manual (now deprecated).

  Plus, the entire Mojo Manual and other Mojo docs are now open-sourced on GitHub, and we'd love to accept contributions to help us improve them!

• Mojo now supports partial automatic parameterization: when a function is declared with an argument of a partially bound type, the unbound parameters of that type are implicitly added to the function's input parameters. For example:

  @value
  struct Fudge[a: Int, b: Int, c: Int = 7]: ...
  
  # These function declarations are roughly equivalent:
  fn eat(f: Fudge[5]): ...               # implicitly parameterized
  fn eat[_b: Int](f: Fudge[5, _b]): ...  # explicitly parameterized

  @value
  struct Fudge[a: Int, b: Int, c: Int = 7]: ...
  
  # These function declarations are roughly equivalent:
  fn eat(f: Fudge[5]): ...               # implicitly parameterized
  fn eat[_b: Int](f: Fudge[5, _b]): ...  # explicitly parameterized

  In the first signature for eat(), the b parameter isn't bound, so it's implicitly added as an input parameter on the function.

  In the second signature for eat(), the author has explicitly defined an input parameter (_b), which is bound to the second parameter on the argument type (which happens to be b).

  Both functions can be called like this:

  eat(Fudge[5, 8]())

  eat(Fudge[5, 8]())

  Mojo infers the value of the b parameter from the argument (in this case, 8).

  With the second signature, you can also pass the _b parameter value explicitly:

  eat[3](Fudge[5, 3]())

  eat[3](Fudge[5, 3]())

  Moreover, Mojo now allows you to explicitly mark parameters as unbound using the _ as syntax meaning "placeholder for an unbound parameter." For example:

  # These function declarations are roughly equivalent:
  fn eat(f: Fudge[5, _, c=_]): ...                    # implicitly parameterized
  fn eat(f: Fudge[c=_, a=5, b=_]): ...                # implicitly parameterized
  fn eat[_b: Int, _c: Int](f: Fudge[5, _b, _c]): ...  # explicitly parameterized

  # These function declarations are roughly equivalent:
  fn eat(f: Fudge[5, _, c=_]): ...                    # implicitly parameterized
  fn eat(f: Fudge[c=_, a=5, b=_]): ...                # implicitly parameterized
  fn eat[_b: Int, _c: Int](f: Fudge[5, _b, _c]): ...  # explicitly parameterized

  The first two signatures explicitly unbind the b and c parameters.

  In the last signature, the _b and _c parameters are explicitly declared by the author, and bound to the b and c parameters in the argument type.

  Any of these signatures can be called like this:

  eat(Fudge[5, 8]())
  eat(Fudge[5, 8, 9]())

  eat(Fudge[5, 8]())
  eat(Fudge[5, 8, 9]())

  Note that the default parameter values of struct parameters are bound, unless explicitly unbound by the user.

  For more information, see the Mojo Manual.

• Parametric types can now be partially bound in certain contexts. For example, a new Scalar type alias has been added defined as:

  alias Scalar = SIMD[size=1]

  alias Scalar = SIMD[size=1]

  Which creates a parametric type alias Scalar with a single parameter of type DType. Types can also be partially or fully bound in other contexts. For instance, alias declarations of type values inside functions now work properly:

  fn type_aliases():
      alias T = SIMD
      print(T[DType.float32, 1]())
      alias Partial = T[type=DType.int32]
      print(Partial[2]())

  fn type_aliases():
      alias T = SIMD
      print(T[DType.float32, 1]())
      alias Partial = T[type=DType.int32]
      print(Partial[2]())

• The __mlir_op feature now supports operations that return multiple results. To use them, you write the _type field as a Tuple of types. For example:

  # The `ret` variable has type `Tuple[Int, Int]`.
  let ret = __mlir_op.`multi_result_op`[_type=(Int, Int)]()

  # The `ret` variable has type `Tuple[Int, Int]`.
  let ret = __mlir_op.`multi_result_op`[_type=(Int, Int)]()

• Mojo now has the ability to read raw bytes from a file using the read_bytes() method. For example:

  with open("file.binary", "r") as f:
      data = f.read_bytes()

  with open("file.binary", "r") as f:
      data = f.read_bytes()

• A size argument was added to the read() and read_bytes() methods on the builtin file.FileHandle. The size argument defaults to -1 and maintains the previous "read to EOF" behavior when size is negative.

  with open("file.binary", "r") as f:
      data1 = f.read_bytes(1024)
      data2 = f.read_bytes(256)

  with open("file.binary", "r") as f:
      data1 = f.read_bytes(1024)
      data2 = f.read_bytes(256)

• Path now has read_bytes() and read_text() methods to read file contents from a path:

  let text_path = Path("file.txt")
  let text = text_path.read_text()
  
  let binary_path = Path("file.binary")
  let data = binary_path.read_bytes()

  let text_path = Path("file.txt")
  let text = text_path.read_text()
  
  let binary_path = Path("file.binary")
  let data = binary_path.read_bytes()

• Tensor has new save() and load() methods to save and load to file. These methods preserve shape and datatype information. For example:

  let tensor = Tensor[DType.float32]()
  tensor.save(path)
  
  let tensor_from_file = Tensor[DType.float32].load(path)

  let tensor = Tensor[DType.float32]()
  tensor.save(path)
  
  let tensor_from_file = Tensor[DType.float32].load(path)

• Subscripting added to DTypePointer and Pointer:

  let p = DTypePointer[DType.float16].alloc(4)
  for i in range(4):
      p[i] = i
      print(p[i])

  let p = DTypePointer[DType.float16].alloc(4)
  for i in range(4):
      p[i] = i
      print(p[i])

• file.FileHandle now has a seek() method.

• String now has an rfind() method analogous to Python's str.rfind().

• String now has an split() method analogous to Python's str.split().

• Path now has a suffix() method analogous to Python's pathlib.Path.suffix.

• The Mojo REPL now supports indented expressions, making it a bit easier to execute expressions copied from an indented block (such as a doc string).

• The Mojo Language Server now implements the Document Symbols request. IDEs use this to provide support for Outline View and Go to Symbol. This addresses Issue #960.

• The Mojo Language Server now shows documentation when code completing modules or packages in import statements.

• The Mojo Language Server now supports processing code examples, defined as markdown Mojo code blocks, inside of doc strings. This enables IDE features while writing examples in API documentation.

• The Mojo Language Server now provides semantic token information, providing better highlighting for symbols whose semantics are not statically analyzable.

• The Mojo Language Server now classifies doc strings as folding ranges, making them easier to collapse, reducing vertical space while editing.

• Command line options for the mojo driver that take arguments can now be written in either of two ways: both --foo FOO and --foo=FOO. Previously, only the former was valid.

🦋 Changed

• Variadic list types VariadicList and VariadicListMem are now iterable. Variadic arguments are automatically projected into one of these types inside the function body, so var args can be iterated:

  fn print_ints(*nums: Int):
      for num in nums:
          print(num)
      print(len(nums))

  fn print_ints(*nums: Int):
      for num in nums:
          print(num)
      print(len(nums))

• The assert functions in the testing package now raise an Error when the assertion fails instead of returning a Bool for whether the assertion succeeded or not.

• Parameters of AnyType type are no longer (implicitly) assumed to be register-passable. A new AnyRegType type is used to represent generic types that are register passable.

• Changing the units in a benchmark report is now an argument instead of a parameter:

  let report = benchmark.run[timer]()
  report.print(Unit.ms)

  let report = benchmark.run[timer]()
  report.print(Unit.ms)

• Default values on inout arguments are no longer permitted, i.e. the following will now raise an error:

  fn inout_default(inout x: Int = 2): ...

  fn inout_default(inout x: Int = 2): ...

• The to_string() function has been removed from PythonObject in favor of the new __str__() function. This composes better with traits so it can be used with the generic str() function.

🛠️ Fixed

• #734 - Consumption of struct works only for types with a __del__ method.

• #910 - Parser crash when using memory-only generic type as return of function that raises.

• #1060 - Mojo happily parses code that has messed up indentation

• #1159 - The language server doesn't warn about bad return type.

• #1166 - warning: unreachable code after return statement with context manager

• #1098 - The language server doesn't highlight properties of PythonObjects correctly.

• #1153 - The language server crashes when parsing an invalid multi-nested module import.

• #1236 - The language server doesn't show autocomplete in if statements.

• #1246 - Warning diagnostics are transient in the presence of caching.

Known Issue

• There is an issue affecting Jupyter notebooks that use autotuning and traits. This issue only manifests on macOS, and the same code runs without issue outside of the notebooks. This issue affects the Matrix multiplication in Mojo notebook.

v0.5.0 (2023-11-2)

⭐️ New

• The SIMD type now defaults to the architectural SIMD width of the type. This means you can write SIMD[DType.float32] which is equivalent to SIMD[DType.float32, simdwidthof[DType.float32]()].

• The SIMD type now contains a join() function that allows you to concatenate two SIMD values together and produce a new SIMD value.

• Mojo now supports compile-time keyword parameters, in addition to existing support for keyword arguments. For example:

  fn foo[a: Int, b: Int = 42]():
      print(a, "+", b)
  
  foo[a=5]()        # prints '5 + 42'
  foo[a=7, b=13]()  # prints '7 + 13'
  foo[b=20, a=6]()  # prints '6 + 20'

  fn foo[a: Int, b: Int = 42]():
      print(a, "+", b)
  
  foo[a=5]()        # prints '5 + 42'
  foo[a=7, b=13]()  # prints '7 + 13'
  foo[b=20, a=6]()  # prints '6 + 20'

  Keyword parameters are also supported in structs:

  struct KwParamStruct[a: Int, msg: String = "🔥mojo🔥"]:
      fn __init__(inout self):
          print(msg, a)
  
  fn use_kw_params():
      KwParamStruct[a=42]()               # prints '🔥mojo🔥 42'
      KwParamStruct[5, msg="hello"]()     # prints 'hello 5'
      KwParamStruct[msg="hello", a=42]()  # prints 'hello 42'

  struct KwParamStruct[a: Int, msg: String = "🔥mojo🔥"]:
      fn __init__(inout self):
          print(msg, a)
  
  fn use_kw_params():
      KwParamStruct[a=42]()               # prints '🔥mojo🔥 42'
      KwParamStruct[5, msg="hello"]()     # prints 'hello 5'
      KwParamStruct[msg="hello", a=42]()  # prints 'hello 42'

  For more detail, see the Mojo Manual.

  For the time being, the following notable limitations apply:

  • Keyword-only parameters are not supported yet:

    fn baz[*args: Int, b: Int](): pass  # fails
    fn baz[a: Int, *, b: Int](): pass  # fails

    fn baz[*args: Int, b: Int](): pass  # fails
    fn baz[a: Int, *, b: Int](): pass  # fails

    (The analogous keyword-only arguments in Python are described in PEP 3102.)

  • Variadic keyword parameters are not supported yet:

    fn baz[a: Int, **kwargs: Int](): pass  # fails

    fn baz[a: Int, **kwargs: Int](): pass  # fails

• Mojo now supports "automatic" parameterization of functions. What this means is that if a function argument type is parametric but has no bound parameters, they are automatically added as input parameters on the function. This works with existing features to allow you to write parametric functions with less boilerplate.

  @value
  struct Thing[x: Int, y: Int]:
      pass
  
  fn foo(v: Thing):
      print(v.x)
      print(v.y)
  
  fn main():
      let v = Thing[2, 3]()
      foo(v)

  @value
  struct Thing[x: Int, y: Int]:
      pass
  
  fn foo(v: Thing):
      print(v.x)
      print(v.y)
  
  fn main():
      let v = Thing[2, 3]()
      foo(v)

  However, partial autoparameterization is not supported yet:

  fn foo(v: Thing[y=7]):  # Partially bound type not allowed yet.
      ...

  fn foo(v: Thing[y=7]):  # Partially bound type not allowed yet.
      ...

• Keyword argument passing is supported when invoking __getitem__ using the bracket syntax:

  @value
  struct MyStruct:
      fn __getitem__(self, x: Int, y: Int, z: Int) -> Int:
          return x * y + z
  
  MyStruct()[z=7, x=3, y=5]  # returns 22

  @value
  struct MyStruct:
      fn __getitem__(self, x: Int, y: Int, z: Int) -> Int:
          return x * y + z
  
  MyStruct()[z=7, x=3, y=5]  # returns 22

  However, keyword argument passing to __setitem__ using the bracket syntax is not supported yet:

  @value
  struct OtherStruct:
      fn __setitem__(self, x: Int, y: Int): pass
  
  OtherStruct()[x=1] = 4  # fails

  @value
  struct OtherStruct:
      fn __setitem__(self, x: Int, y: Int): pass
  
  OtherStruct()[x=1] = 4  # fails

• Function argument input parameters can now be referenced within the signature of the function:

  fn foo(x: SIMD, y: SIMD[x.type, x.size]):
      pass

  fn foo(x: SIMD, y: SIMD[x.type, x.size]):
      pass

• The benchmark module has been simplified and improved so you can now run:

  import benchmark
  from time import sleep
  
  fn sleeper():
      sleep(.01)
  
  fn main():
      let report = benchmark.run[sleeper]()
      print(report.mean())

  import benchmark
  from time import sleep
  
  fn sleeper():
      sleep(.01)
  
  fn main():
      let report = benchmark.run[sleeper]()
      print(report.mean())

  It no longer requires a capturing fn so can benchmark functions outside the same scope.

  You can print a report with:

  report.print()

  report.print()

  ---------------------
  Benchmark Report (s)
  ---------------------
  Mean: 0.012314264957264957
  Total: 1.440769
  Iters: 117
  Warmup Mean: 0.0119335
  Warmup Total: 0.023866999999999999
  Warmup Iters: 2
  Fastest Mean: 0.012227958333333334
  Slowest Mean: 0.012442699999999999

  ---------------------
  Benchmark Report (s)
  ---------------------
  Mean: 0.012314264957264957
  Total: 1.440769
  Iters: 117
  Warmup Mean: 0.0119335
  Warmup Total: 0.023866999999999999
  Warmup Iters: 2
  Fastest Mean: 0.012227958333333334
  Slowest Mean: 0.012442699999999999

  Units for all functions default to seconds, but can be changed with:

  from benchmark import Unit
  
  report.print[Unit.ms]()

  from benchmark import Unit
  
  report.print[Unit.ms]()

• Mojo now supports struct parameter deduction (a.k.a. class template argument deduction, or CTAD) for partially bound types. Struct parameter deduction is also possible from static methods. For example:

  @value
  struct Thing[v: Int]: pass
  
  struct CtadStructWithDefault[a: Int, b: Int, c: Int = 8]:
      fn __init__(inout self, x: Thing[a]):
          print("hello", a, b, c)
  
      @staticmethod
      fn foo(x: Thing[a]):
          print("🔥", a, b, c)
  
  fn main():
      _ = CtadStructWithDefault[b=7](Thing[6]())  # prints 'hello 6 7 8'
      CtadStructWithDefault[b=7].foo(Thing[6]())  # prints '🔥 6 7 8'

  @value
  struct Thing[v: Int]: pass
  
  struct CtadStructWithDefault[a: Int, b: Int, c: Int = 8]:
      fn __init__(inout self, x: Thing[a]):
          print("hello", a, b, c)
  
      @staticmethod
      fn foo(x: Thing[a]):
          print("🔥", a, b, c)
  
  fn main():
      _ = CtadStructWithDefault[b=7](Thing[6]())  # prints 'hello 6 7 8'
      CtadStructWithDefault[b=7].foo(Thing[6]())  # prints '🔥 6 7 8'

• Tensor has new fromfile() and tofile() methods to save and load as bytes from a file.

• The built-in print() function now works on the Tensor type.

• TensorShape and TensorSpec now have constructors that take DynamicVector[Int] and IndexList to initialize shapes.

• The String type now has the count() and find() methods to enable counting the number of occurrences or finding the offset index of a substring in a string.

• The String type now has a replace() method which allows you to replace a substring with another string.

🦋 Changed

• VariadicList and VariadicListMem moved under builtins, and no longer need to be imported.

• Variadic arguments are now automatically projected into a VariadicList or VariadicListMem inside the function body. This allows for more flexibility in using var args. For example:

    fn print_ints(*nums: Int):
        let len = len(nums)
        for i in range(len):
            print(nums[i])
        print(len)

    fn print_ints(*nums: Int):
        let len = len(nums)
        for i in range(len):
            print(nums[i])
        print(len)

• The parameters for InlinedFixedVector have been switched. The parameters are now [type, size] instead of [size, type]. The InlinedFixedVector now has a default size which means that one can just use InlinedFixedVector as InlinedFixedVector[Float32] and the default size is used.

• write_file() method in Buffer and NDBuffer is renamed to tofile() to match the Python naming.

• Mojo will now utilize all available cores across all NUMA sockets on the host machine by default. The prior default behavior was to use all the cores on the first socket.

❌ Removed

• The math.numerics module is now private, because its types (FPUtils and FlushDenormals) should not be used externally.

🛠️ Fixed

• #532 - Compiler optimizing while True loop away
• #760 - Compilation error: 'hlcf.for.yield' op specifies 0 branch inputs but target expected 1 along control-flow edge from here
• #849 - The Tensor type is now initialized with zeros at construction time.
• #912 - Invalid load for __get_address_as_lvalue.
• #916 - Parser crash when specifying default values for inout arguments.
• #943 - Mojo hangs if you use continue in the nested loop
• #957 - Parser crash when a function call with variadic arguments of a memory-only type is evaluated at compile time.
• #990 - Fixes rounding issue with floor division with negative numerator.
• #1018 - In some cases the sort function was returning invalid results. This release fixes some of these corner cases.
• #1010 - Initializing tensor in alias declaration results in crash.
• #1110 - The time.now() function now returns nanoseconds across all operating systems.
• #1115 - cannot load non-register passable type into SSA register.

v0.4.0 for Mac (2023-10-19)

🔥 Legendary

• Mojo for Mac!

  The Mojo SDK now works on macOS (Apple silicon). This is the same version previously released for Linux. Get the latest version of the SDK for your Mac system:

  Download Now!

v0.4.0 (2023-10-05)

⭐️ New

• Mojo now supports default parameter values. For example:

  fn foo[a: Int = 3, msg: StringLiteral = "woof"]():
      print(msg, a)
  
  fn main():
      foo()  # prints 'woof 3'
      foo[5]()  # prints 'woof 5'
      foo[7, "meow"]()  # prints 'meow 7'

  fn foo[a: Int = 3, msg: StringLiteral = "woof"]():
      print(msg, a)
  
  fn main():
      foo()  # prints 'woof 3'
      foo[5]()  # prints 'woof 5'
      foo[7, "meow"]()  # prints 'meow 7'

  Inferred parameter values take precedence over defaults:

  @value
  struct Bar[v: Int]:
      pass
  
  fn foo[a: Int = 42, msg: StringLiteral = "quack"](bar: Bar[a]):
      print(msg, a)
  
  fn main():
      foo(Bar[9]())  # prints 'quack 9'

  @value
  struct Bar[v: Int]:
      pass
  
  fn foo[a: Int = 42, msg: StringLiteral = "quack"](bar: Bar[a]):
      print(msg, a)
  
  fn main():
      foo(Bar[9]())  # prints 'quack 9'

  Structs also support default parameters:

  @value
  struct DefaultParams[msg: StringLiteral = "woof"]:
      alias message = msg
  
  fn main():
      print(DefaultParams[]().message)  # prints 'woof'
      print(DefaultParams["meow"]().message)  # prints 'meow'

  @value
  struct DefaultParams[msg: StringLiteral = "woof"]:
      alias message = msg
  
  fn main():
      print(DefaultParams[]().message)  # prints 'woof'
      print(DefaultParams["meow"]().message)  # prints 'meow'

• The new file module adds basic file I/O support. You can now write:

  var f = open("my_file.txt", "r")
  print(f.read())
  f.close()

  var f = open("my_file.txt", "r")
  print(f.read())
  f.close()

  or

  with open("my_file.txt", "r") as f:
      print(f.read())

  with open("my_file.txt", "r") as f:
      print(f.read())

• Mojo now allows context managers to support an __enter__ method without implementing support for an __exit__ method, enabling idioms like this:

  # This context manager consumes itself and returns it as the value.
  fn __enter__(owned self) -> Self:
      return self^

  # This context manager consumes itself and returns it as the value.
  fn __enter__(owned self) -> Self:
      return self^

  Here Mojo cannot invoke a noop __exit__ method because the context manager is consumed by the __enter__ method. This can be used for types (like file descriptors) that are traditionally used with with statements, even though Mojo's guaranteed early destruction doesn't require that.

• A very basic version of pathlib has been implemented in Mojo. The module will be improved to achieve functional parity with Python in the next few releases.

• The memory.unsafe module now contains a bitcast function. This is a low-level operation that enables bitcasting between pointers and scalars.

• The input parameters of a parametric type can now be directly accessed as attribute references on the type or variables of the type. For example:

  @value
  struct Thing[param: Int]:
      pass
  
  fn main():
      print(Thing[2].param) # prints '2'
      let x = Thing[9]()
      print(x.param) # prints '9'

  @value
  struct Thing[param: Int]:
      pass
  
  fn main():
      print(Thing[2].param) # prints '2'
      let x = Thing[9]()
      print(x.param) # prints '9'

  Input parameters on values can even be accessed in parameter contexts. For example:

  fn foo[value: Int]():
      print(value)
  
  let y = Thing[12]()
  alias constant = y.param + 4
  foo[constant]() # prints '16'

  fn foo[value: Int]():
      print(value)
  
  let y = Thing[12]()
  alias constant = y.param + 4
  foo[constant]() # prints '16'

• The Mojo REPL now supports code completion. Press Tab while typing to query potential completion results.

• Error messages from Python are now exposed in Mojo. For example the following should print No module named 'my_uninstalled_module':

  fn main():
      try:
          let my_module = Python.import_module("my_uninstalled_module")
      except e:
          print(e)

  fn main():
      try:
          let my_module = Python.import_module("my_uninstalled_module")
      except e:
          print(e)

• Error messages can now store dynamic messages. For example, the following should print "Failed on: Hello"

  fn foo(x: String) raises:
      raise Error("Failed on: " + x)
  
  fn main():
      try:
          foo("Hello")
      except e:
          print(e)

  fn foo(x: String) raises:
      raise Error("Failed on: " + x)
  
  fn main():
      try:
          foo("Hello")
      except e:
          print(e)

🦋 Changed

• We have improved and simplified the parallelize function. The function now elides some overhead by caching the Mojo parallel runtime.

• The Mojo REPL and Jupyter environments no longer implicitly expose Python, PythonObject, or Pointer. These symbols must now be imported explicitly, for example:

  from python import Python
  from python.object import PythonObject
  from memory.unsafe import Pointer

  from python import Python
  from python.object import PythonObject
  from memory.unsafe import Pointer

• The syntax for specifying attributes with the __mlir_op prefix have changed to mimic Python's keyword argument passing syntax. That is, = should be used instead of :, e.g.:

  # Old syntax, now fails.
  __mlir_op.`index.bool.constant`[value : __mlir_attr.false]()
  # New syntax.
  __mlir_op.`index.bool.constant`[value=__mlir_attr.false]()

  # Old syntax, now fails.
  __mlir_op.`index.bool.constant`[value : __mlir_attr.false]()
  # New syntax.
  __mlir_op.`index.bool.constant`[value=__mlir_attr.false]()

• You can now print the Error object directly. The message() method has been removed.

🛠️ Fixed

• #794 - Parser crash when using the in operator.
• #936 - The Int constructor now accepts other Int instances.
• #921 - Better error message when running mojo on a module with no main function.
• #556 - UInt64s are now printed correctly.
• #804 - Emit error instead of crashing when passing variadic arguments of unsupported types.
• #833 - Parser crash when assigning module value.
• #752 - Parser crash when calling async def.
• #711 - The overload resolution logic now correctly prioritizes instance methods over static methods (if candidates are an equally good match otherwise), and no longer crashed if a static method has a Self type as its first argument.
• #859 - Fix confusing error and documentation of the rebind builtin.
• #753 - Direct use of LLVM dialect produces strange errors in the compiler.
• #926 - Fixes an issue that occurred when a function with a return type of StringRef raised an error. When the function raised an error, it incorrectly returned the string value of that error.
• #536 - Report More information on python exception.

v0.3.1 (2023-09-28)

Our first-ever patch release of the Mojo SDK is here! Release v0.3.1 includes primarily installation-related fixes. If you’ve had trouble installing the previous versions of the SDK, this release may be for you.

🛠️ Fixed

• #538 - Installation hangs during the testing phase. This issue occurs on machines with a low number of CPU cores, such as free AWS EC2 instances and GitHub Codespaces.
• #590 - Installation fails with a “failed to run python” message.
• #672 - Language server hangs on code completion. Related to #538, this occurs on machines with a low number of CPU cores.
• #913 - In the REPL and Jupyter notebooks, inline comments were being parsed incorrectly.

v0.3.0 (2023-09-21)

There's more Mojo to love in this, the second release of the Mojo SDK! This release includes new features, an API change, and bug fixes.

There's also an updated version of the Mojo extension for VS Code.

⭐️ New

• Mojo now has partial support for passing keyword arguments to functions and methods. For example the following should work:

  fn foo(a: Int, b: Int = 3) -> Int:
      return a * b
  
  fn main():
      print(foo(6, b=7))  # prints '42'
      print(foo(a=6, b=7))  # prints '42'
      print(foo(b=7, a=6))  # prints '42'

  fn foo(a: Int, b: Int = 3) -> Int:
      return a * b
  
  fn main():
      print(foo(6, b=7))  # prints '42'
      print(foo(a=6, b=7))  # prints '42'
      print(foo(b=7, a=6))  # prints '42'

  Parameters can also be inferred from keyword arguments, for example:

  fn bar[A: AnyType, B: AnyType](a: A, b: B):
      print("Hello 🔥")
  
  fn bar[B: AnyType](a: StringLiteral, b: B):
      print(a)
  
  fn main():
      bar(1, 2)  # prints `Hello 🔥`
      bar(b=2, a="Yay!")  # prints `Yay!`

  fn bar[A: AnyType, B: AnyType](a: A, b: B):
      print("Hello 🔥")
  
  fn bar[B: AnyType](a: StringLiteral, b: B):
      print(a)
  
  fn main():
      bar(1, 2)  # prints `Hello 🔥`
      bar(b=2, a="Yay!")  # prints `Yay!`

  For the time being, the following notable limitations apply:

  • Keyword-only arguments are not supported:

    fn baz(*args: Int, b: Int): pass  # fails
    fn baz(a: Int, *, b: Int): pass  # fails

    fn baz(*args: Int, b: Int): pass  # fails
    fn baz(a: Int, *, b: Int): pass  # fails

    (Keyword-only arguments are described in PEP 3102.)

  • Variadic keyword arguments are not supported:

    fn baz(a: Int, **kwargs: Int): pass  # fails

    fn baz(a: Int, **kwargs: Int): pass  # fails

• Mojo now supports the @nonmaterializable decorator. The purpose is to mark data types that should only exist in the parameter domain. To use it, a struct is decorated with @nonmaterializable(TargetType). Any time the nonmaterializable type is converted from the parameter domain, it is automatically converted to TargetType. A nonmaterializable struct should have all of its methods annotated as @always_inline, and must be computable in the parameter domain. In the following example, the NmStruct type can be added in the parameter domain, but are converted to HasBool when materialized.

  @value
  @register_passable("trivial")
  struct HasBool:
      var x: Bool
      fn __init__(x: Bool) -> Self:
          return Self {x: x}
      @always_inline("nodebug")
      fn __init__(nms: NmStruct) -> Self:
          return Self {x: True if (nms.x == 77) else False}
  
  @value
  @nonmaterializable(HasBool)
  @register_passable("trivial")
  struct NmStruct:
      var x: Int
      @always_inline("nodebug")
      fn __add__(self: Self, rhs: Self) -> Self:
          return NmStruct(self.x + rhs.x)
  
  alias stillNmStruct = NmStruct(1) + NmStruct(2)
  # When materializing to a run-time variable, it is automatically converted,
  # even without a type annotation.
  let convertedToHasBool = stillNmStruct

  @value
  @register_passable("trivial")
  struct HasBool:
      var x: Bool
      fn __init__(x: Bool) -> Self:
          return Self {x: x}
      @always_inline("nodebug")
      fn __init__(nms: NmStruct) -> Self:
          return Self {x: True if (nms.x == 77) else False}
  
  @value
  @nonmaterializable(HasBool)
  @register_passable("trivial")
  struct NmStruct:
      var x: Int
      @always_inline("nodebug")
      fn __add__(self: Self, rhs: Self) -> Self:
          return NmStruct(self.x + rhs.x)
  
  alias stillNmStruct = NmStruct(1) + NmStruct(2)
  # When materializing to a run-time variable, it is automatically converted,
  # even without a type annotation.
  let convertedToHasBool = stillNmStruct

• Mojo integer literals now produce the IntLiteral infinite precision integer type when used in the parameter domain. IntLiteral is materialized to the Int type for runtime computation, but intermediate computations at compile time, using supported operators, can now exceed the bit width of the Int type.

• The Mojo Language Server now supports top-level code completions, enabling completion when typing a reference to a variable, type, etc. This resolves #679.

• The Mojo REPL now colorizes the resultant variables to help distinguish input expressions from the output variables.

🦋 Changed

• Mojo allows types to implement two forms of move constructors, one that is invoked when the lifetime of one value ends, and one that is invoked if the compiler cannot prove that. These were previously both named __moveinit__, with the following two signatures:

  fn __moveinit__(inout self, owned existing: Self): ...
  fn __moveinit__(inout self, inout existing: Self): ...

  fn __moveinit__(inout self, owned existing: Self): ...
  fn __moveinit__(inout self, inout existing: Self): ...

  We've changed the second form to get its own name to make it more clear that these are two separate operations: the second has been renamed to __takeinit__:

  fn __moveinit__(inout self, owned existing: Self): ...
  fn __takeinit__(inout self, inout existing: Self): ...

  fn __moveinit__(inout self, owned existing: Self): ...
  fn __takeinit__(inout self, inout existing: Self): ...

  The name is intended to connote that the operation takes the conceptual value from the source (without destroying it) unlike the first one which "moves" a value from one location to another.

  For more information, see the Mojo Manual section on move constructors.

• The Error type in Mojo has changed. Instead of extracting the error message using error.value you will now extract the error message using error.message().

🛠️ Fixed

• #503 - Improve error message for failure lowering kgen.param.constant.
• #554 - Alias of static tuple fails to expand.
• #500 - Call expansion failed due to verifier error.
• #422 - Incorrect comment detection in multiline strings.
• #729 - Improve messaging on how to exit the REPL.
• #756 - Fix initialization errors of the VS Code extension.
• #575 - Build LLDB/REPL with libedit for a nicer editing experience in the terminal.

v0.2.1 (2023-09-07)

The first versioned release of Mojo! 🔥

All earlier releases were considered version 0.1.

🔥 Legendary

• First release of the Mojo SDK!

  You can now develop with Mojo locally. The Mojo SDK is currently available for Ubuntu Linux systems, and support for Windows and macOS is coming soon. You can still develop from a Windows or Mac computer using a container or remote Linux system.

  The Mojo SDK includes the Mojo standard library and the Mojo command-line interface (CLI), which allows you to run, compile, and package Mojo code. It also provides a REPL programming environment.

  Get the Mojo SDK!

• First release of the Mojo extension for VS Code.

  This provides essential Mojo language features in Visual Studio Code, such as code completion, code quick fixes, docs tooltips, and more. Even when developing on a remote system, using VS Code with this extension provides a native-like IDE experience.

⭐️ New

• A new clobber_memory function has been added to the benchmark module. The clobber memory function tells the system to flush all memory operations at the specified program point. This allows you to benchmark operations without the compiler reordering memory operations.

• A new keep function has been added to the benchmark module. The keep function tries to tell the compiler not to optimize the variable away if not used. This allows you to avoid compiler's dead code elimination mechanism, with a low footprint side effect.

• New shift_right and shift_left functions have been added to the simd module. They shift the elements in a SIMD vector right/left, filling elements with zeros as needed.

• A new cumsum function has been added to the reduction module that computes the cumulative sum (also known as scan) of input elements.

• Mojo Jupyter kernel now supports code completion.

🦋 Changed

• Extends rotate_bits_left, rotate_left, rotate_bits_right, and rotate_right to operate on Int values. The ordering of parameters has also been changed to enable type inference. Now it's possible to write rotate_right[shift_val](simd_val) and have the dtype and simd_width inferred from the argument. This addresses Issue #528.

🛠️ Fixed

• Fixed a bug causing the parser to crash when the with statement was written without a colon. This addresses Issue #529.

• Incorrect imports no longer crash when there are other errors at the top level of a module. This fixes Issue #531.

August 2023

2023-08-24

• Fixed issue where the with expr as x statement within fn behaved as if it were in a def, binding x with function scope instead of using lexical scope.

⭐️ New

• Major refactoring of the standard library to enable packaging and better import ergonomics:

  • The packages are built as binaries to improve startup speed.
  • Package and module names are now lowercase to align with the Python style.
  • Modules have been moved to better reflect the purpose of the underlying functions (e.g. Pointer is now within the unsafe module in the memory package).
  • The following modules are now included as built-ins: SIMD, DType, IO, Object, and String. This means it's no longer necessary to explicitly import these modules. Instead, these modules will be implicitly imported for the user. Private methods within the module are still accessible using the builtin.module_name._private_method import syntax.
  • New math package has been added to contain the bit, math, numerics, and polynomial modules. The contents of the math.math module are re-exported into the math package.

• Mojo now supports using memory-only types in parameter expressions and as function or type parameters:

  @value
  struct IntPair:
      var first: Int
      var second: Int
  
  fn add_them[value: IntPair]() -> Int:
      return value.first + value.second
  
  fn main():
      print(add_them[IntPair(1, 2)]()) # prints '3'

  @value
  struct IntPair:
      var first: Int
      var second: Int
  
  fn add_them[value: IntPair]() -> Int:
      return value.first + value.second
  
  fn main():
      print(add_them[IntPair(1, 2)]()) # prints '3'

• In addition, Mojo supports evaluating code that uses heap-allocated memory at compile-time and materializing compile-time values with heap-allocated memory into dynamic values:

  fn fillVector(lowerBound: Int, upperBound: Int, step: Int) -> DynamicVector[Int]:
      var result = DynamicVector[Int]()
      for i in range(lowerBound, upperBound, step):
          result.push_back(i)
      return result
  
  fn main():
      alias values = fillVector(5, 23, 7)
      for i in range(0, values.__len__()):
          print(values[i]) # prints '5', '12', and then '19'

  fn fillVector(lowerBound: Int, upperBound: Int, step: Int) -> DynamicVector[Int]:
      var result = DynamicVector[Int]()
      for i in range(lowerBound, upperBound, step):
          result.push_back(i)
      return result
  
  fn main():
      alias values = fillVector(5, 23, 7)
      for i in range(0, values.__len__()):
          print(values[i]) # prints '5', '12', and then '19'

🦋 Changed

• def main():, without the explicit None type, can now be used to define the entry point to a Mojo program.

• The assert_param function has been renamed to constrained and is now a built-in function.

• The print function now works on Complex values.

🛠️ Fixed

• Fixed issues with print formatting for DType.uint16 and DType.int16.
• Issue #499 - Two new rotate_right and rotate_left functions have been added to the SIMD module.
• Issue #429 - You can now construct a Bool from a SIMD type whose element-type is DType.bool.
• Issue #350 - Confusing Matrix implementation
• Issue #349 - Missing load_tr in struct Matrix
• Issue #501 - Missing syntax error messages in Python expressions.

2023-08-09

🦋 Changed

• The ref and mutref identifiers are now treated as keywords, which means they cannot be used as variable, attribute, or function names. These keywords are used by the "lifetimes" features, which is still in development. We can consider renaming these (as well as other related keywords) when the development work gels, support is enabled in public Mojo builds, and when we have experience using them.

• The argument handling in def functions has changed: previously, they had special behavior that involved mutable copies in the callee. Now, we have a simple rule, which is that def argument default to the owned convention (fn arguments still default to the borrowed convention).

  This change is mostly an internal cleanup and simplification of the compiler and argument model, but does enable one niche use-case: you can now pass non-copyable types to def arguments by transferring ownership of a value into the def call. Before, that would not be possible because the copy was made on the callee side, not the caller's side. This also allows the explicit use of the borrowed keyword with a def that wants to opt-in to that behavior.

2023-08-03

⭐️ New

• A new Tensor type has been introduced. This tensor type manages its own data (unlike NDBuffer and Buffer which are just views). Therefore, the tensor type performs its own allocation and free. Here is a simple example of using the tensor type to represent an RGB image and convert it to grayscale:

  from tensor import Tensor, TensorShape
  from utils.index import Index
  from random import rand
  
  let height = 256
  let width = 256
  let channels = 3
  
  # Create the tensor of dimensions height, width, channels and fill with
  # random value.
  let image = rand[DType.float32](height, width, channels)
  
  # Declare the grayscale image.
  var gray_scale_image = Tensor[DType.float32](height, width)
  
  # Perform the RGB to grayscale transform.
  for y in range(height):
      for x in range(width):
          let r = image[y, x, 0]
          let g = image[y, x, 1]
          let b = image[y, x, 2]
          gray_scale_image[Index(y, x)] = 0.299 * r + 0.587 * g + 0.114 * b

  from tensor import Tensor, TensorShape
  from utils.index import Index
  from random import rand
  
  let height = 256
  let width = 256
  let channels = 3
  
  # Create the tensor of dimensions height, width, channels and fill with
  # random value.
  let image = rand[DType.float32](height, width, channels)
  
  # Declare the grayscale image.
  var gray_scale_image = Tensor[DType.float32](height, width)
  
  # Perform the RGB to grayscale transform.
  for y in range(height):
      for x in range(width):
          let r = image[y, x, 0]
          let g = image[y, x, 1]
          let b = image[y, x, 2]
          gray_scale_image[Index(y, x)] = 0.299 * r + 0.587 * g + 0.114 * b

🛠️ Fixed

• Issue #53 - Int now implements true division with the / operator. Similar to Python, this returns a 64-bit floating point number. The corresponding in-place operator, /=, has the same semantics as //=.

July 2023

2023-07-26

⭐️ New

• Types that define both __getitem__ and __setitem__ (i.e. where sub-scripting instances creates computed LValues) can now be indexed in parameter expressions.

• Unroll decorator for loops with constant bounds and steps:

  • @unroll: Fully unroll a loop.
  • @unroll(n): Unroll a loop by factor of n, where n is a positive integer.
  • Unroll decorator requires loop bounds and iteration step to be compiler time constant value, otherwise unrolling will fail with compilation error. This also doesn't make loop induction variable a parameter.

  # Fully unroll the loop.
  @unroll
  for i in range(5):
      print(i)
  
  # Unroll the loop by a factor of 4 (with remainder iterations of 2).
  @unroll(4)
  for i in range(10):
      print(i)

  # Fully unroll the loop.
  @unroll
  for i in range(5):
      print(i)
  
  # Unroll the loop by a factor of 4 (with remainder iterations of 2).
  @unroll(4)
  for i in range(10):
      print(i)

• The Mojo REPL now prints the values of variables defined in the REPL. There is full support for scalars and structs. Non-scalar SIMD vectors are not supported at this time.

🛠️ Fixed

• Issue #437 - Range can now be instantiated with a PythonObject.

• Issue #288 - Python strings can now be safely copied.

2023-07-20

⭐️ New

• Mojo now includes a Limits module, which contains functions to get the max and min values representable by a type, as requested in Issue #51. The following functions moved from Math to Limits: inf(), neginf(), isinf(), isfinite().

• Mojo decorators are now distinguished between "signature" and "body" decorators and are ordered. Signature decorators, like @register_passable and @parameter, modify the type of declaration before the body is parsed. Body decorators, like @value, modify the body of declaration after it is fully parsed. Due to ordering, a signature decorator cannot be applied after a body decorator. That means the following is now invalid:

  @register_passable # error: cannot apply signature decorator after a body one!
  @value
  struct Foo:
      pass

  @register_passable # error: cannot apply signature decorator after a body one!
  @value
  struct Foo:
      pass

• Global variables can now be exported in Mojo compiled archives, using the @export decorator. Exported global variables are public symbols in compiled archives and use the variable name as its linkage name, by default. A custom linkage name can be specified with @export("new_name"). This does not affect variable names in Mojo code.

• Mojo now supports packages! A Mojo package is defined by placing an __init__.mojo or __init__.🔥 within a directory. Other files in the same directory form modules within the package (this works exactly like it does in Python). Example:

  main.🔥
  my_package/
    __init__.🔥
    module.🔥
    my_other_package/
      __init__.🔥
      stuff.🔥

  main.🔥
  my_package/
    __init__.🔥
    module.🔥
    my_other_package/
      __init__.🔥
      stuff.🔥

  # main.🔥
  from my_package.module import some_function
  from my_package.my_other_package.stuff import SomeType
  
  fn main():
      var x: SomeType = some_function()

  # main.🔥
  from my_package.module import some_function
  from my_package.my_other_package.stuff import SomeType
  
  fn main():
      var x: SomeType = some_function()

• Mojo now supports direct module and package imports! Modules and packages can be imported and bound to names. Module and package elements, like functions, types, global variables, and other modules, can be accessed using attribute references, like my_module.foo. Note that modules lack runtime representations, meaning module references cannot be instantiated.

  import builtin.io as io
  import SIMD
  
  io.print("hello world")
  var x: SIMD.Float32 = 1.2

  import builtin.io as io
  import SIMD
  
  io.print("hello world")
  var x: SIMD.Float32 = 1.2

🦋 Changed

• Reverted the feature from 2023-02-13 that allowed unqualified struct members. Use the Self keyword to conveniently access struct members with bound parameters instead. This was required to fix Issue #260.

• Updated the RayTracing notebook: added step 5 to create specular lighting for more realistic images and step 6 to add a background image.

🛠️ Fixed

• Issue #260 - Definitions inside structs no longer shadow definitions outside of struct definitions.

2023-07-12

⭐️ New

• Mojo now has support for global variables! This enables var and let declaration at the top-level scope in Mojo files. Global variable initializers are run when code modules are loaded by the platform according to the order of dependencies between global variables, and their destructors are called in the reverse order.

• The Mojo programming manual is now written as a Jupyter notebook, and available in its entirety in the Mojo Playground (programming-manual.ipynb). (Previously, HelloMojo.ipynb included most of the same material, but it was not up-to-date.)

• As a result, we've also re-written HelloMojo.ipynb to be much shorter and provide a more gentle first-user experience.

• Coroutine module documentation is now available. Coroutines form the basis of Mojo's support for asynchronous execution. Calls to async fns can be stored into a Coroutine, from which they can be resumed, awaited upon, and have their results retrieved upon completion.

🦋 Changed

• simd_bit_width in the TargetInfo module has been renamed to simdbitwidth to better align with simdwidthof, bitwidthof, etc.

🛠️ Fixed

• The walrus operator now works in if/while statements without parentheses, e.g. if x := function():.

• Issue #428 - The FloatLiteral and SIMD types now support conversion to Int via the to_int or __int__ method calls. The behavior matches that of Python, which rounds towards zero.

2023-07-05

⭐️ New

• Tuple expressions now work without parentheses. For example, a, b = b, a works as you'd expect in Python.
• Chained assignments (e.g. a = b = 42) and the walrus operator (e.g. some_function(b := 17)) are now supported.

🦋 Changed

• The simd_width and dtype_simd_width functions in the TargetInfo module have been renamed to simdwidthof.

• The dtype_ prefix has been dropped from alignof, sizeof, and bitwidthof. You can now use these functions (e.g. alignof) with any argument type, including DType.

• The inf, neginf, nan, isinf, isfinite, and isnan functions were moved from the Numerics module to the Math module, to better align with Python's library structure.

🛠️ Fixed

• Issue #253 - Issue when accessing a struct member alias without providing parameters.

• Issue #404 - The docs now use snake_case for variable names, which more closely conforms to Python's style.

• Issue #379 - Tuple limitations have been addressed and multiple return values are now supported, even without parentheses.

• Issue #347 - Tuples no longer require parentheses.

• Issue #320 - Python objects are now traversable via for loops.

June 2023

2023-06-29

⭐️ New

• You can now share .ipynb notebook files in Mojo Playground. Just save a file in the shared directory, and then right-click the file and select Copy Sharable link. To open a shared notebook, you must already have access to Mojo Playground; when you open a shared notebook, click Import at the top of the notebook to save your own copy. For more details about this feature, see the instructions inside the help directory, in the Mojo Playground file browser.

🦋 Changed

• The unroll2() and unroll3() functions in the Functional module have been renamed to overload the unroll() function. These functions unroll 2D and 3D loops and unroll() can determine the intent based on the number of input parameters.

🛠️ Fixed

• Issue #229 - Issue when throwing an exception from __init__ before all fields are initialized.

• Issue #74 - Struct definition with recursive reference crashes.

• Issue #285 - The TargetInfo module now includes is_little_endian() and is_big_endian() to check if the target host uses either little or big endian.

• Issue #254 - Parameter name shadowing in nested scopes is now handled correctly.

2023-06-21

⭐️ New

• Added support for overloading on parameter signature. For example, it is now possible to write the following:

  fn foo[a: Int](x: Int):
      pass
  
  fn foo[a: Int, b: Int](x: Int):
      pass

  fn foo[a: Int](x: Int):
      pass
  
  fn foo[a: Int, b: Int](x: Int):
      pass

  For details on the overload resolution logic, see the Mojo Manual section on parameters.

• A new cost_of() function has been added to Autotune. This meta-function must be invoked at compile time, and it returns the number of MLIR operations in a function (at a certain stage in compilation), which can be used to build basic heuristics in higher-order generators.

  from autotune import cost_of
  
  fn generator[f: fn(Int) -> Int]() -> Int:
      @parameter
      if cost_of[fn(Int) -> Int, f]() < 10:
          return f()
      else:
          # Do something else for slower functions...

  from autotune import cost_of
  
  fn generator[f: fn(Int) -> Int]() -> Int:
      @parameter
      if cost_of[fn(Int) -> Int, f]() < 10:
          return f()
      else:
          # Do something else for slower functions...

• Added a new example notebook with a basic Ray Tracing algorithm.

🦋 Changed

• The constrained_msg() in the Assert module has been renamed to constrained().

🛠️ Fixed

• Overloads marked with @adaptive now correctly handle signatures that differ only in declared parameter names, e.g. the following now works correctly:

  @adaptive
  fn foobar[w: Int, T: DType]() -> SIMD[T, w]: ...
  
  @adaptive
  fn foobar[w: Int, S: DType]() -> SIMD[S, w]: ...

  @adaptive
  fn foobar[w: Int, T: DType]() -> SIMD[T, w]: ...
  
  @adaptive
  fn foobar[w: Int, S: DType]() -> SIMD[S, w]: ...

• Issue #219 - Issue when redefining a function and a struct defined in the same cell.

• Issue #355 - The loop order in the Matmul notebook for Python and naive mojo have been reordered for consistency. The loop order now follows (M, K, N) ordering.

• Issue #309 - Use snake case naming within the testing package and move the asserts out of the TestSuite struct.

2023-06-14

⭐️ New

• Tuple type syntax is now supported, e.g. the following works:

  fn return_tuple() -> (Int, Int):
      return (1, 2)

  fn return_tuple() -> (Int, Int):
      return (1, 2)

🦋 Changed

• The TupleLiteral type was renamed to just Tuple, e.g. Tuple[Int, Float].

🛠️ Fixed

• Issue #354 - Returning a tuple doesn't work even with parens.
• Issue #365 - Copy-paste error in FloatLiteral docs.
• Issue #357 - Crash when missing input parameter to variadic parameter struct member function.

2023-06-07

⭐️ New

• Tuple syntax now works on the left-hand side of assignments (in "lvalue" positions), enabling things like (a, b) = (b, a). There are several caveats: the element types must exactly match (no implicit conversions), this only works with values of TupleLiteral type (notably, it will not work with PythonObject yet) and parentheses are required for tuple syntax.

❌ Removed

• Mojo Playground no longer includes the following Python packages (due to size, compute costs, and environment complications): torch, tensorflow, keras, transformers.

🦋 Changed

• The data types and scalar names now conform to the naming convention used by numpy. So we use Int32 instead of SI32, similarly using Float32 instead of F32. Closes Issue #152.

🛠️ Fixed

• Issue #287 - computed lvalues don't handle raising functions correctly
• Issue #318 - Large integers are not being printed correctly
• Issue #326 - Float modulo operator is not working as expected
• Issue #282 - Default arguments are not working as expected
• Issue #271 - Confusing error message when converting between function types with different result semantics

May 2023

2023-05-31

⭐️ New

• Mojo Playground now includes the following Python packages (in response to popular demand): torch, tensorflow, polars, opencv-python, keras, Pillow, plotly, seaborn, sympy, transformers.

• A new optimization is applied to non-trivial copyable values that are passed as an owned value without using the transfer (^) operator. Consider code like this:

  var someValue: T = ...
  ...
  takeValueAsOwned(someValue)
  ...

  var someValue: T = ...
  ...
  takeValueAsOwned(someValue)
  ...

  When takeValueAsOwned() takes its argument as an owned value (this is common in initializers for example), it is allowed to do whatever it wants with the value and destroy it when it is finished. In order to support this, the Mojo compiler is forced to make a temporary copy of the someValue value, and pass that value instead of someValue, because there may be other uses of someValue after the call.

  The Mojo compiler is now smart enough to detect when there are no uses of someValue later, and it will elide the copy just as if you had manually specified the transfer operator like takeValueAsOwned(someValue^). This provides a nice "it just works" behavior for non-trivial types without requiring manual management of transfers.

  If you'd like to take full control and expose full ownership for your type, just don't make it copyable. Move-only types require the explicit transfer operator so you can see in your code where all ownership transfer happen.

• Similarly, the Mojo compiler now transforms calls to __copyinit__ methods into calls to __moveinit__ when that is the last use of the source value along a control flow path. This allows types which are both copyable and movable to get transparent move optimization. For example, the following code is compiled into moves instead of copies even without the use of the transfer operator:

    var someValue = somethingCopyableAndMovable()
    use(someValue)
    ...
    let otherValue = someValue      # Last use of someValue
    use(otherValue)
    ...
    var yetAnother = otherValue     # Last use of otherValue
    mutate(yetAnother)

    var someValue = somethingCopyableAndMovable()
    use(someValue)
    ...
    let otherValue = someValue      # Last use of someValue
    use(otherValue)
    ...
    var yetAnother = otherValue     # Last use of otherValue
    mutate(yetAnother)

  This is a significant performance optimization for things like PythonObject (and more complex value semantic types) that are commonly used in a fluid programming style. These don't want extraneous reference counting operations performed by its copy constructor.

  If you want explicit control over copying, it is recommended to use a non-dunder .copy() method instead of __copyinit__, and recall that non-copyable types must always use of the transfer operator for those that want fully explicit behavior.

🛠️ Fixed

• Issue #231 - Unexpected error when a Python expression raises an exception
• Issue #119 - The REPL fails when a python variable is redefined

2023-05-24

⭐️ New

• finally clauses are now supported on try statements. In addition, try statements no longer require except clauses, allowing try-finally blocks. finally clauses contain code that is always executed from control-flow leaves any of the other clauses of a try statement by any means.

🦋 Changed

• with statement emission changed to use the new finally logic so that

  with ContextMgr():
      return

  with ContextMgr():
      return

  Will correctly execute ContextMgr.__exit__ before returning.

🛠️ Fixed

• Issue #204 - Mojo REPL crash when returning a String at compile-time
• Issue #143 - synthesized init in @register_passable type doesn't get correct convention.
• Issue #201 - String literal concatenation is too eager.
• Issue #209 - [QoI] Terrible error message trying to convert a type to itself.
• Issue #32 - Include struct fields in docgen
• Issue #50 - Int to string conversion crashes due to buffer overflow
• Issue #132 - PythonObject to_int method has a misleading name
• Issue #189 - PythonObject bool conversion is incorrect
• Issue #65 - Add SIMD constructor from Bool
• Issue #153 - Meaning of Time.now function result is unclear
• Issue #165 - Type in Pointer.free documentation
• Issue #210 - Parameter results cannot be declared outside top-level in function
• Issue #214 - Pointer offset calculations at compile-time are incorrect
• Issue #115 - Float printing does not include the right number of digits
• Issue #202 - kgen.unreachable inside nested functions is illegal
• Issue #235 - Crash when register passable struct field is not register passable
• Issue #237 - Parameter closure sharp edges are not documented

2023-05-16

⭐️ New

• Added missing dunder methods to PythonObject, enabling the use of common arithmetic and logical operators on imported Python values.

• PythonObject is now printable from Mojo, instead of requiring you to import Python's print function.

🛠️ Fixed

• Issue #98: Incorrect error with lifetime tracking in loop.

• Issue #49: Type inference issue (?) in 'ternary assignment' operation (FloatLiteral vs. 'SIMD[f32, 1]').

• Issue #48: and/or don't work with memory-only types.

• Issue #11: setitem Support for PythonObject.

2023-05-11

⭐️ New

• NDBuffer and Buffer are now constructable via Pointer and DTypePointer.

• String now supports indexing with either integers or slices.

• Added factorial function to the Math module.

🦋 Changed

• The "byref" syntax with the & sigil has changed to use an inout keyword to be more similar to the borrowed and owned syntax in arguments. Please see Issue #7 for more information.

• Optimized the Matrix multiplication implementation in the notebook. Initially we were optimizing for expandability rather than performance. We have found a way to get the best of both worlds and now the performance of the optimized Matmul implementation is 3x faster.

• Renamed the ^ postfix operator from "consume" to "transfer."

🛠️ Fixed

• Fixed missing overloads for Testing.assertEqual so that they work on Integer and String values.

• Issue #6: Playground stops evaluating cells when a simple generic is defined.

• Issue #18: Memory leak in Python interoperability was removed.

2023-05-02

📢 Released

• Mojo publicly launched! This was epic, with lots of great coverage online including a wonderful post by Jeremy Howard. The team is busy this week.

⭐️ New

• Added a Base64 encoding function to perform base64 encoding on strings.

🦋 Changed

• Decreased memory usage of serialization of integers to strings.

• Speedup the sort function.

🛠️ Fixed

• Fixed time unit in the sleep function.

April 2023

Week of 2023-04-24

• 📢 The default behavior of nested functions has been changed. Mojo nested functions that capture are by default are non-parametric, runtime closures, meaning that:

  def foo(x):
      # This:
      def bar(y): return x * y
      # Is the same as:
      let bar = lambda y: x * y

  def foo(x):
      # This:
      def bar(y): return x * y
      # Is the same as:
      let bar = lambda y: x * y

  These closures cannot have input or result parameters, because they are always materialized as runtime values. Values captured in the closure (x in the above example), are captured by copy: values with copy constructors cannot be copied and captures are immutable in the closure.

  Nested functions that don't capture anything are by default "parametric" closures: they can have parameters and they can be used as parameter values. To restore the previous behavior for capturing closures, "parametric, capture-by-unsafe-reference closures", tag the nested function with the @parameter decorator.

• 📢 Mojo now has full support for "runtime" closures: nested functions that capture state materialized as runtime values. This includes taking the address of functions, indirect calls, and passing closures around through function arguments. Note that capture-by-reference is still unsafe!

  You can also take references to member functions with instances of that class using foo.member_function, which creates a closure with foo bound to the self argument.

• 📢 Mojo now supports Python style with statements and context managers.

  These things are very helpful for implementing things like our trace region support and things like Runtime support.

  A context manager in Mojo implements three methods:

  fn __enter__(self) -> T:
  fn __exit__(self):
  fn __exit__(self, err: Error) -> Bool:

  fn __enter__(self) -> T:
  fn __exit__(self):
  fn __exit__(self, err: Error) -> Bool:

  The first is invoked when the context is entered, and returns a value that may optionally be bound to a target for use in the with body. If the with block exits normally, the second method is invoked to clean it up. If an error is raised, the third method is invoked with the Error value. If that method returns true, the error is considered handled, if it returns false, the error is re-thrown so propagation continues out of the 'with' block.

• 📢 Mojo functions now support variable scopes! Explicit var and let declarations inside functions can shadow declarations from higher "scopes", where a scope is defined as any new indentation block. In addition, the for loop iteration variable is now scoped to the loop body, so it is finally possible to write

  for i in range(1): pass
  for i in range(2): pass

  for i in range(1): pass
  for i in range(2): pass

• 📢 Mojo now supports an @value decorator on structs to reduce boilerplate and encourage best practices in value semantics. The @value decorator looks to see the struct has a memberwise initializer (which has arguments for each field of the struct), a __copyinit__ method, and a __moveinit__ method, and synthesizes the missing ones if possible. For example, if you write:

  @value
  struct MyPet:
    var name: String
    var age: Int

  @value
  struct MyPet:
    var name: String
    var age: Int

  The @value decorator will synthesize the following members for you:

  fn __init__(inout self, owned name: String, age: Int):
      self.name = name^
      self.age = age
  fn __copyinit__(inout self, existing: Self):
      self.name = existing.name
      self.age = existing.age
  fn __moveinit__(inout self, owned existing: Self):
      self.name = existing.name^
      self.age = existing.age

  fn __init__(inout self, owned name: String, age: Int):
      self.name = name^
      self.age = age
  fn __copyinit__(inout self, existing: Self):
      self.name = existing.name
      self.age = existing.age
  fn __moveinit__(inout self, owned existing: Self):
      self.name = existing.name^
      self.age = existing.age

  This decorator can greatly reduce the boilerplate needed to define common aggregates, and gives you best practices in ownership management automatically. The @value decorator can be used with types that need custom copy constructors (your definition wins). We can explore having the decorator take arguments to further customize its behavior in the future.

• 📚 Memcpy and memcmp now consistently use count as the byte count.

• 📚 Add a variadic string join on strings.

• 📚 Introduce a reduce_bit_count method to count the number of 1 across all elements in a SIMD vector.

• 📚 Optimize the pow function if the exponent is integral.

• 📚 Add a len function which dispatches to __len__ across the different structs that support it.

Week of 2023-04-17

• 📢 Error messages have been significantly improved, thanks to prettier printing for Mojo types in diagnostics.

• 📢 Variadic values can now be indexed directly without wrapping them in a VariadicList!

• 📢 let declarations in a function can now be lazily initialized, and var declarations that are never mutated get a warning suggesting they be converted to a let declaration. Lazy initialization allows more flexible patterns of initialization than requiring the initializer be inline, e.g.:

  let x: Int
  if cond:
      x = foo()
  else:
      x = bar()
  use(x)

  let x: Int
  if cond:
      x = foo()
  else:
      x = bar()
  use(x)

• 📢 Functions defined with def now return object by default, instead of None. This means you can return values (convertible to object) inside def functions without specifying a return type.

• 📢 The @raises decorator has been removed. Raising fn should be declared by specifying raises after the function argument list. The rationale is that raises is part of the type system, instead of a function modifier.

• 📢 The BoolLiteral type has been removed. Mojo now emits True and False directly as Bool.

• 📢 Syntax for function types has been added. You can now write function types with fn(Int) -> String or async def(&String, *Int) -> None. No more writing !kgen.signature types by hand!

• 📢 Float literals are not emitted as FloatLiteral instead of an MLIR f64 type!

• 📢 Automatic destructors are now supported by Mojo types, currently spelled fn __del___(owned self): (the extra underscore will be dropped shortly). These destructors work like Python object destructors and similar to C++ destructors, with the major difference being that they run "as soon as possible" after the last use of a value. This means they are not suitable for use in C++-style RAII patterns (use the with statement for that, which is currently unsupported).

  These should be generally reliable for both memory-only and register-passable types, with the caveat that closures are known to not capture values correctly. Be very careful with interesting types in the vicinity of a closure!

• A new (extremely dangerous!) builtin function is available for low-level ownership muckery. The __get_address_as_owned_value(x) builtin takes a low-level address value (of !kgen.pointer type) and returns an owned value for the memory that is pointed to. This value is assumed live at the invocation of the builtin, but is "owned" so it needs to be consumed by the caller, otherwise it will be automatically destroyed. This is an effective way to do a "placement delete" on a pointer.

  # "Placement delete": destroy the initialized object begin pointed to.
  _ = __get_address_as_owned_value(somePointer.value)
  
  # Result value can be consumed by anything that takes it as an 'owned'
  # argument as well.
  consume(__get_address_as_owned_value(somePointer.value))

  # "Placement delete": destroy the initialized object begin pointed to.
  _ = __get_address_as_owned_value(somePointer.value)
  
  # Result value can be consumed by anything that takes it as an 'owned'
  # argument as well.
  consume(__get_address_as_owned_value(somePointer.value))

• Another magic operator, named __get_address_as_uninit_lvalue(x) joins the magic LValue operator family. This operator projects a pointer to an LValue like __get_address_as_lvalue(x). The difference is that __get_address_as_uninit_lvalue(x) tells the compiler that the pointee is uninitialized on entry and initialized on exit, which means that you can use it as a "placement new" in C++ sense. __get_address_as_lvalue(x) tells the compiler that the pointee is initialized already, so reassigning over it will run the destructor.

  # "*Re*placement new": destroy the existing SomeHeavy value in the memory,
  # then initialize a new value into the slot.
  __get_address_as_lvalue(somePointer.value) = SomeHeavy(4, 5)
  
  # Ok to use an lvalue, convert to borrow etc.
  use(__get_address_as_lvalue(somePointer.value))
  
  # "Placement new": Initialize a new value into uninitialied memory.
  __get_address_as_uninit_lvalue(somePointer.value) = SomeHeavy(4, 5)
  
  # Error, cannot read from uninitialized memory.
  use(__get_address_as_uninit_lvalue(somePointer.value))

  # "*Re*placement new": destroy the existing SomeHeavy value in the memory,
  # then initialize a new value into the slot.
  __get_address_as_lvalue(somePointer.value) = SomeHeavy(4, 5)
  
  # Ok to use an lvalue, convert to borrow etc.
  use(__get_address_as_lvalue(somePointer.value))
  
  # "Placement new": Initialize a new value into uninitialied memory.
  __get_address_as_uninit_lvalue(somePointer.value) = SomeHeavy(4, 5)
  
  # Error, cannot read from uninitialized memory.
  use(__get_address_as_uninit_lvalue(somePointer.value))

  Note that __get_address_as_lvalue assumes that there is already a value at the specified address, so the assignment above will run the SomeHeavy destructor (if any) before reassigning over the value.

• 📢 Implement full support for __moveinit__ (aka move constructors)

  This implements the ability for memory-only types to define two different types of move ctors if they'd like:

  1. fn __moveinit__(inout self, owned existing: Self): Traditional Rust style moving constructors that shuffles data around while taking ownership of the source binding.
  2. fn __moveinit__(inout self, inout existing: Self):: C++ style "stealing" move constructors that can be used to take from an arbitrary LValue.

  This gives us great expressive capability (better than Rust/C++/Swift) and composes naturally into our lifetime tracking and value categorization system.

• The __call__ method of a callable type has been relaxed to take self by borrow, allow non-copyable callees to be called.

• Implicit conversions are now invoked in raise statements properly, allowing converting strings to Error type.

• Automatic destructors are turned on for __del__ instead of __del___.

• 📚 Add the builtin FloatLiteral type.

• 📚 Add integral floordiv and mod for the SIMD type that handle negative values.

• 📚 Add an F64 to String converter.

• 📚 Make the print function take variadic inputs.

Week of 2023-04-10

• 📢 Introduce consume operator x^

  This introduces the postfix consume operator, which produces an RValue given a lifetime tracked object (and, someday, a movable LValue).

• Mojo now automatically synthesizes empty destructor methods for certain types when needed.

• The object type has been built out into a fully-dynamic type, with dynamic function dispatch, with full error handling support.

  def foo(a) -> object:
      return (a + 3.45) < [1, 2, 3] # raises a TypeError

  def foo(a) -> object:
      return (a + 3.45) < [1, 2, 3] # raises a TypeError

• 📢 The @always_inline decorator is no longer required for passing capturing closures as parameters, for both the functions themselves as functions with capturing closures in their parameters. These functions are still inlined but it is an implementation detail of capturing parameter closures. Mojo now distinguishes between capturing and non-capturing closures. Nested functions are capturing by default and can be made non-capturing with the @noncapturing decorator. A top-level function can be passed as a capturing closure by marking it with the @closure decorator.

• 📢 Support for list literals has been added. List literals [1, 2, 3] generate a variadic heterogeneous list type.

• Variadics have been extended to work with memory-primary types.

• Slice syntax is now fully-supported with a new builtin slice object, added to the compiler builtins. Slice indexing with a[1:2:3] now emits calls to __setitem__ and __getitem__ with a slice object.

• Call syntax has been wired up to __call__. You can now f() on custom types!

• Closures are now explicitly typed as capturing or non-capturing. If a function intends to accept a capturing closure, it must specify the capturing function effect.

• 📚 Add a Tile2D function to enable generic 2D tiling optimizations.

• 📚 Add the slice struct to enable getting/setting spans of elements via getitem/setitem.

• 📚 Add syntax sugar to autotuning for both specifying the autotuned values, searching, and declaring the evaluation function.

Week of 2023-04-03

• The AnyType and NoneType aliases were added and auto-imported in all files.

• 📢 The Mojo VS Code extension has been improved with docstring validation. It will now warn when a function's docstring has a wrong argument name, for example.

• 📢 A new built-in literal type TupleLiteral was added in _CompilerBuiltin. It represents literal tuple values such as (1, 2.0) or ().

• 📢 The Int type has been moved to a new Builtin module and is auto-imported in all code. The type of integer literals has been changed from the MLIR index type to the Int type.

• Mojo now has a powerful flow-sensitive uninitialized variable checker. This means that you need to initialize values before using them, even if you overwrite all subcomponents. This enables the compiler to reason about the true lifetime of values, which is an important stepping stone to getting automatic value destruction in place.

• 📢 Call syntax support has been added. Now you can directly call an object that implements the __call__ method, like foo(5).

• 📢 The name for copy constructors got renamed from __copy__ to __copyinit__. Furthermore, non-@register_passable types now implement it like they do an init method where you fill in a by-reference self, for example:

  fn __copyinit__(inout self, existing: Self):
      self.first = existing.first
      self.second = existing.second

  fn __copyinit__(inout self, existing: Self):
      self.first = existing.first
      self.second = existing.second

  This makes copy construction work more similarly to initialization, and still keeps copies x = y distinct from initialization x = T(y).

• 📢 Initializers for memory-primary types are now required to be in the form __init__(inout self, ...): with a None result type, but for register primary types, it remains in the form __init__(...) -> Self:. The T{} initializer syntax has been removed for memory-primary types.

• Mojo String literals now emit a builtin StringLiteral type! One less MLIR type to worry about.

• New __getattr__ and __setattr__ dunder methods were added. Mojo calls these methods on a type when attempting member lookup of a non-static member. This allows writing dynamic objects like x.foo() where foo is not a member of x.

• Early destructor support has been added. Types can now define a special destructor method __del___ (note three underscores). This is an early feature and it is still being built out. There are many caveats, bugs, and missing pieces. Stay tuned!

• 📚 Integer division and mod have been corrected for rounding in the presence of negative numbers.

• 📚 Add scalar types (UI8, SI32, F32, F64, etc.) which are aliases to SIMD[1, type].

March 2023

Week of 2023-03-27

• 📢 Parameter names are no longer load-bearing in function signatures. This gives more flexibility in defining higher-order functions, because the functions passed as parameters do not need their parameter names to match.

  # Define a higher-order function...
  fn generator[
     func: __mlir_type[`!kgen.signature<`, Int, `>() -> !kgen.none`]
  ]():
     pass
  
  # Int parameter is named "foo".
  fn f0[foo: Int]():
     pass
  
  # Int parameter is named "bar".
  fn f1[bar: Int]():
     pass
  
  fn main():
     # Both can be used as `func`!
     generator[f0]()
     generator[f1]()

  # Define a higher-order function...
  fn generator[
     func: __mlir_type[`!kgen.signature<`, Int, `>() -> !kgen.none`]
  ]():
     pass
  
  # Int parameter is named "foo".
  fn f0[foo: Int]():
     pass
  
  # Int parameter is named "bar".
  fn f1[bar: Int]():
     pass
  
  fn main():
     # Both can be used as `func`!
     generator[f0]()
     generator[f1]()

  Stay tuned for improved function type syntax...

• 📢 Two magic operators, named __get_lvalue_as_address(x) and __get_address_as_lvalue convert stored LValues to and from !kgen.pointer types (respectively). This is most useful when using the Pointer[T] library type. The Pointer(to=lvalue) method uses the first one internally. The second one must currently be used explicitly, and can be used to project a pointer to a reference that you can pass around and use as a self value, for example:

  # "Replacement new" SomeHeavy value into the memory pointed to by a
  # Pointer[SomeHeavy].
  __get_address_as_lvalue(somePointer.value) = SomeHeavy(4, 5)

  # "Replacement new" SomeHeavy value into the memory pointed to by a
  # Pointer[SomeHeavy].
  __get_address_as_lvalue(somePointer.value) = SomeHeavy(4, 5)

  Note that __get_address_as_lvalue assumes that there is already a value at the specified address, so the assignment above will run the SomeHeavy destructor (if any) before reassigning over the value.

• The (((x))) syntax is __mlir_op has been removed in favor of __get_lvalue_as_address which solves the same problem and is more general.

• 📢 When using a mutable self argument to a struct __init__ method, it now must be declared with &, like any other mutable method. This clarifies the mutation model by making __init__ consistent with other mutating methods.

• 📚 Add variadic string join function.

• 📚 Default initialize values with 0 or null if possible.

• 📚 Add compressed, aligned, and mask store intrinsics.

Week of 2023-03-20

• Initial String type is added to the standard library with some very basic methods.

• Add DimList to remove the need to use an MLIR list type throughout the standard library.

• 📢 The __clone__ method for copying a value is now named __copy__ to better follow Python term of art.

• 📢 The __copy__ method now takes its self argument as a "read" value, instead of taking it by reference. This makes it easier to write, works for @register_passable types, and exposes more optimization opportunities to the early optimizer and dataflow analysis passes.

  # Before:
  fn __clone__(inout self) -> Self: ...
  
  # After:
  fn __copy__(self) -> Self: ...

  # Before:
  fn __clone__(inout self) -> Self: ...
  
  # After:
  fn __copy__(self) -> Self: ...

• 📢 A new @register_passable("trivial") may be applied to structs that have no need for a custom __copy__ or __del__ method, and whose state is only made up of @register_passable("trivial") types. This eliminates the need to define __copy__ boilerplate and reduces the amount of IR generated by the compiler for trivial types like Int.

• You can now write back to attributes of structs that are produced by a computed lvalue expression. For example a[i].x = .. works when a[i] is produced with a __getitem__/__setitem__ call. This is implemented by performing a read of a[i], updating the temporary, then doing a writeback.

• The remaining hurdles to using non-parametric, @register_passable types as parameter values have been cleared. Types like Int should enjoy full use as parameter values.

• Parameter pack inference has been added to function calls. Calls to functions with parameter packs can now elide the pack types:

  fn foo[*Ts: AnyType](*args: *Ts): pass
  
  foo(1, 1.2, True, "hello")

  fn foo[*Ts: AnyType](*args: *Ts): pass
  
  foo(1, 1.2, True, "hello")

  Note that the syntax for parameter packs has been changed as well.

• 📚 Add the runtime string type.

• 📚 Introduce the DimList struct to remove the need to use low-level MLIR operations.

Week of 2023-03-13

• 📢 Initializers for structs now use __init__ instead of __new__, following standard practice in Python. You can write them in one of two styles, either traditional where you mutate self:

  fn __init__(self, x: Int):
      self.x = x

  fn __init__(self, x: Int):
      self.x = x

  or as a function that returns an instance:

  fn __init__(x: Int) -> Self:
      return Self {x: x}

  fn __init__(x: Int) -> Self:
      return Self {x: x}

  Note that @register_passable types must use the later style.

• 📢 The default argument convention is now the borrowed convention. A "read" argument is passed like a C++ const& so it doesn't need to invoke the copy constructor (aka the __clone__ method) when passing a value to the function. There are two differences from C++ const&:

  1. A future borrow checker will make sure there are no mutable aliases with an immutable borrow.
  2. @register_passable values are passed directly in an SSA register (and thus, usually in a machine register) instead of using an extra reference wrapper. This is more efficient and is the 'right default' for @register_passable values like integers and pointers.

  This also paves the way to remove the reference requirement from __clone__ method arguments, which will allow us to fill in more support for them.

• Support for variadic pack arguments has been added to Mojo. You can now write heterogeneous variadic packs like:

  fn foo[*Ts: AnyType](args*: Ts): pass
  
  foo[Int, F32, String, Bool](1, 1.5, "hello", True)

  fn foo[*Ts: AnyType](args*: Ts): pass
  
  foo[Int, F32, String, Bool](1, 1.5, "hello", True)

• The owned argument convention has been added. This argument convention indicates that the function takes ownership of the argument and is responsible for managing its lifetime.

• The borrowed argument convention has been added. This convention signifies the callee gets an immutable shared reference to a value in the caller's context.

• 📚 Add the getenv function to the OS module to enable getting environment variables.

• 📚 Enable the use of dynamic strides in NDBuffer.

Week of 2023-03-06

• 📢 Support added for using capturing async functions as parameters.

• 📢 Returning result parameters has been moved from return statements to a new param_return statement. This allows returning result parameters from throwing functions:

  @raises
  fn foo[() -> out: Int]():
      param_return[42]
      raise Error()

  @raises
  fn foo[() -> out: Int]():
      param_return[42]
      raise Error()

  And returning different parameters along @parameter if branches:

  fn bar[in: Bool -> out: Int]():
      @parameter
      if in:
          param_return[1]
      else:
          param_return[2]

  fn bar[in: Bool -> out: Int]():
      @parameter
      if in:
          param_return[1]
      else:
          param_return[2]

• 📢 Mojo now supports omitting returns at the end of functions when they would not reachable. For instance,

  fn foo(cond: Bool) -> Int:
      if cond:
          return 0
      else:
          return 1
  
  fn bar() -> Int:
      while True:
          pass

  fn foo(cond: Bool) -> Int:
      if cond:
          return 0
      else:
          return 1
  
  fn bar() -> Int:
      while True:
          pass

• String literals now support concatenation, so "hello " "world" is treated the same as "hello world".

• Empty bodies on functions, structs, and control flow statements are no longer allowed. Please use pass in them to explicitly mark that they are empty, just like in Python.

• 📢 Structs in Mojo now default to living in memory instead of being passed around in registers. This is the right default for generality (large structures, structures whose pointer identity matters, etc) and is a key technology that enables the borrow model. For simple types like Int and SIMD, they can be marked as @register_passable.

  Note that memory-only types currently have some limitations: they cannot be used in generic algorithms that take and return a !mlirtype argument, and they cannot be used in parameter expressions. Because of this, a lot of types have to be marked @register_passable just to work around the limitations. We expect to enable these use-cases over time.

• 📢 Mojo now supports computed lvalues, which means you can finally assign to subscript expressions instead of having to call __setitem__ explicitly.

  Some details on this: Mojo allows you to define multiple __setitem__ overloads, but will pick the one that matches your __getitem__ type if present. It allows you to pass computed lvalues into inout arguments by introducing a temporary copy of the value in question.

• Mojo now has much better support for using register-primary struct types in parameter expressions and as the types of parameter values. This will allow migration of many standard library types away from using bare MLIR types like __mlir_type.index and towards using Int. This moves us towards getting rid of MLIR types everywhere and makes struct types first-class citizens in the parameter system.

• 📚 Add a sort function.

• 📚 Add non-temporal store to enable cache bypass.

February 2023

Week of 2023-02-27

• 📢 The @interface, @implements, and @evaluator trio of decorators have been removed, replaced by the @parameter if and @adaptive features.

• 📢 Parameter inference can now infer the type of variadic lists.

• 📢 Memory primary types are now supported in function results. A result slot is allocated in the caller, and the callee writes the result of the function into that slow. This is more efficient for large types that don't fit into registers neatly! And initializers for memory-primary types now initialize the value in-place, instead of emitting a copy!

• Support for let decls of memory primary types has been implemented. These are constant, ready-only values of memory primary types but which are allocated on the function stack.

• Overload conversion resolution and parameter inference has been improved:

  1. Inference now works with let decls in some scenarios that weren't working before.
  2. Parameter bindings can now infer types into parameter expressions. This helps resolve higher-order functions in parameter expressions.

• 📚 Optimize floor, ceil, and ldexp on X86 hardware.

• 📚 Implement the log math function.

Week of 2023-02-20

• 📢 A new @__memory_primary struct decorator has been introduced. Memory primary types must always have an address. For instance, they are always stack-allocated when declared in a function and their values are passed into function calls by address instead of copy. This is in contract with register primary types that may not have an address, and which are passed by value in function calls. Memory-primary fields are not allowed inside register-primary structs, because struct elements are stored in-line.

• 📢 A new _CompilerBuiltin module was added. This module defines core types and functions of the language that are referenced by the parser, and hence, is auto-imported by all other modules. For example new types for literal values like the boolean True/False will be included in _CompilerBuiltin.

• 📢 A special __adaptive_set property can be accessed on a function reference marked as @adaptive. The property returns the adaptive overload set of that function. The return type is a !kgen.variadic. This feature is useful to implement a generic evaluate function in the standard library.

• 📢 A new built-in literal type BoolLiteral was added in _CompilerBuiltin. It represents the literal boolean values True and False. This is the first Mojo literal to be emitted as a standard library type!

• 📚 Add the prefetch intrinsic to enable HW prefetching a cache line.

• 📚 Add the InlinedFixedVector, which is optimized for small vectors and stores values on both the stack and the heap.

Week of 2023-02-13

• Unqualified lookups of struct members apply contextual parameters. This means for instance that you can refer to static methods without binding the struct parameters.

  struct Foo[x: Int]:
      @staticmethod
      bar(): pass
  
      foo(self):
          bar()         # implicitly binds to Foo[x].bar()
          Foo[2].bar()  # explicitly bind to another parameter

  struct Foo[x: Int]:
      @staticmethod
      bar(): pass
  
      foo(self):
          bar()         # implicitly binds to Foo[x].bar()
          Foo[2].bar()  # explicitly bind to another parameter

• 📢 A new Self type refers to the enclosing type with all parameters bound to their current values. This is useful when working with complex parametric types, e.g.:

  struct MyArray[size: Int, element_type: type]:
     fn __new__() -> Self:
         return Self {...}

  struct MyArray[size: Int, element_type: type]:
     fn __new__() -> Self:
         return Self {...}

  which is a lot nicer than having to say MyArray[size, element_type] over and over again.

• 📢 Mojo now supports an @adaptive decorator. This decorator will supersede interfaces, and it represents an overloaded function that is allowed to resolve to multiple valid candidates. In that case, the call is emitted as a fork, resulting in multiple function candidates to search over.

  @adaptive
  fn sort(arr: ArraySlice[Int]):
      bubble_sort(arr)
  
  @adaptive
  fn sort(arr: ArraySlice[Int]):
      merge_sort(arr)
  
  fn concat_and_sort(lhs: ArraySlice[Int], rhs: ArraySlice[Int]):
      let arr = lhs + rhs
      sort(arr) # this forks compilation, creating two instances
                # of the surrounding function

  @adaptive
  fn sort(arr: ArraySlice[Int]):
      bubble_sort(arr)
  
  @adaptive
  fn sort(arr: ArraySlice[Int]):
      merge_sort(arr)
  
  fn concat_and_sort(lhs: ArraySlice[Int], rhs: ArraySlice[Int]):
      let arr = lhs + rhs
      sort(arr) # this forks compilation, creating two instances
                # of the surrounding function

• 📢 Mojo now requires that types implement the __clone__ special member in order to copy them. This allows the safe definition of non-copyable types like Atomic. Note that Mojo still doesn't implement destructors, and (due to the absence of non-mutable references) it doesn't actually invoke the __clone__ member when copying a let value. As such, this forces to you as a Mojo user to write maximal boilerplate without getting much value out of it.

  In the future, we will reduce the boilerplate with decorators, and we will actually start using it. This will take some time to build out though.

• 📢 A special __mlir_region statement was added to provide stronger invariants around defining MLIR operation regions in Mojo. It similar syntax to function declarations, except it there are no results and no input conventions.

• 📚 Implement the log math function.

• 📚 Improve the DType struct to enable compile-time equality checks.

• 📚 Add the Complex struct class.

Week of 2023-02-06

• 📢 The if statement now supports a @parameter decorator, which requires its condition to be a parameter expression, but which only emits the 'True' side of the condition to the binary, providing a "static if" functionality. This should eliminate many uses of @interface that are just used to provide different constraint on the implementations.

• 📢 fn main(): is now automatically exported and directly runnable by the command-line mojo tool. This is a stop-gap solution to enable script-like use cases until we have more of the language built out.

• 🪦 The @nodebug_inline feature has been removed, please use @alwaysinline("nodebug") for methods that must be inlined and that we don't want to step into.

• 📢 Python chained comparisons, ex. a < b < c, are now supported in Mojo.

• 📢 Functions can now be defined with default argument values, such as def f(x: Int, y: Int = 5):. The default argument value is used when callers do not provide a value for that argument: f(3), for example, uses the default argument value of y = 5.

• Unused coroutine results are now nicely diagnosed as "missing await" warnings.

• 📚 Introduce a vectorized reduction operations to the SIMD type.

January 2023

Week of 2023-01-30

• A basic Mojo language server has been added to the VS Code extension, which parses your code as you write it, and provides warnings, errors, and fix-it suggestions!

• 💯 The Mojo standard library is now implicitly imported by default.

• The coroutine lowering support was reworked and a new Coroutine[T] type was implemented. Now, the result of a call to an async function MUST be wrapped in a Coroutine[T], or else memory will leak. In the future, when Mojo supports destructors and library types as literal types, the results of async function calls will automatically wrapped in a Coroutine[T]. But today, it must be done manually. This type implements all the expected hooks, such as __await__, and get() to retrieve the result. Typical usage:

  async fn add_three(a: Int, b: Int, c: Int) -> Int:
      return a + b + c
  
  async fn call_it():
      let task: Coroutine[Int] = add_three(1, 2, 3)
      print(await task)

  async fn add_three(a: Int, b: Int, c: Int) -> Int:
      return a + b + c
  
  async fn call_it():
      let task: Coroutine[Int] = add_three(1, 2, 3)
      print(await task)

• ⭐️ We now diagnose unused expression values at statement context in fn declarations (but not in defs). This catches bugs with unused values, e.g. when you forget the parens to call a function.

• 📢 An @always_inline("nodebug") function decorator can be used on functions that need to be force inlined, but when they should not have debug info in the result. This should be used on methods like Int.__add__ which should be treated as builtin.

• 📢 The @export decorator now supports an explicit symbol name to export to, for example:

  @export("baz") # exported as 'baz'
  fn some_mojo_fn_name():

  @export("baz") # exported as 'baz'
  fn some_mojo_fn_name():

• 📢 🚧 Subscript syntax is now wired up to the __getitem__ dunder method.

  This allows type authors to implement the __getitem__ method to enable values to be subscripted. This is an extended version of the Python semantics (given we support overloading) that allows you to define N indices instead of a single version that takes a tuple (also convenient because we don't have tuples yet).

  Note that this has a very, very important limitation: subscripts are NOT wired up to __setitem__ yet. This means that you can read values with .. = v[i] but you cannot store to them with v[i] = ... For this, please continue to call __setitem__ directly.

• 📢 Function calls support parameter inference.

  For calls to functions that have an insufficient number of parameters specified at the callsite, we can now infer them from the argument list. We do this by matching up the parallel type structure to infer what the parameters must be.

  Note that this works left to right in the parameter list, applying explicitly specified parameters before trying to infer new ones. This is similar to how C++ does things, which means that you may want to reorder the list of parameters with this in mind. For example, a dyn_cast-like function will be more elegant when implemented as:

  fn dyn_cast[DstType: type, SrcType: type](src: SrcType) -> DstType:

  Than with the SrcType/DstType parameters flipped around.

• 📚 Add the growable Dynamic vector struct.

Week of 2023-01-23

• Inplace operations like +=/__iadd__ may now take self by-val if they want to, instead of requiring it to be by-ref.

• ⭐️ Inplace operations are no longer allowed to return a non-None value. The corresponding syntax is a statement, not an expression.

• A new TaskGroup type was added to the standard library. This type can be used to schedule multiple tasks on a multi-threaded workqueue to be executed in parallel. An async function can await all the tasks at once with the taskgroup.

• 📢 We now support for loops! A type that defines an __iter__ method that returns a type that defines __next__ and __len__ methods is eligible to be used in the statement for el in X(). Control flow exits the loop when the length is zero.

  This means things like this now work:

  for item in range(start, end, step):
      print(item)

  for item in range(start, end, step):
      print(item)

• Result parameters now have names. This is useful for referring to result parameters in the return types of a function:

  fn return_simd[() -> nelts: Int]() -> SIMD[f32, nelts]:

  fn return_simd[() -> nelts: Int]() -> SIMD[f32, nelts]:

• 📢 We now support homogeneous variadics in value argument lists, using the standard Python fn thing(*args: Int): syntax! Variadics also have support in parameter lists:

  fn variadic_params_and_args[*a: Int](*b: Int):
      print(a[0])
      print(b[1])

  fn variadic_params_and_args[*a: Int](*b: Int):
      print(a[0])
      print(b[1])

• 📚 Add the range struct to enable for ... range(...) loops.

• 📚 Introduce the unroll generator to allow one to unroll loops via a library function.

Week of 2023-01-16

• 📢 Struct field references are now supported in parameter context, so you can use someInt.value to get the underlying MLIR thing out of it. This should allow using first-class types in parameters more widely.

• 📢 We now support "pretty" initialization syntax for structs, e.g.:

  struct Int:
      var value: __mlir_type.index
      fn __new__(value: __mlir_type.index) -> Int:
          return Int {value: value}

  struct Int:
      var value: __mlir_type.index
      fn __new__(value: __mlir_type.index) -> Int:
          return Int {value: value}

  This eliminates the need to directly use the MLIR lit.struct.create op in struct initializers. This syntax may change in the future when ownership comes in, because we will be able to support the standard __init__ model then.

• 📢 It is now possible to attach regions to __mlir_op operations. This is done with a hack that allows an optional _region attribute that lists references to the region bodies (max 1 region right now due to lack of list [] literal).

• Nested functions now parse, e.g.:

  fn foo():
      fn bar():
          pass
      bar()

  fn foo():
      fn bar():
          pass
      bar()

• Python-style async functions should now work and the await expression prefix is now supported. This provides the joy of async/await syntactic sugar when working with asynchronous functions. This is still somewhat dangerous to use because we don't have proper memory ownership support yet.

• String literals are now supported.

• Return processing is now handled by a dataflow pass inside the compiler, so it is possible to return early out of if statements.

• The parser now supports generating 'fixit' hints on diagnostics, and uses them when a dictionary literal uses a colon instead of equal, e.g.:

  x.mojo:8:48: error: expected ':' in subscript slice, not '='
      return __mlir_op.`lit.struct.create`[value = 42]()
                                                 ^
                                                 :

  x.mojo:8:48: error: expected ':' in subscript slice, not '='
      return __mlir_op.`lit.struct.create`[value = 42]()
                                                 ^
                                                 :

• 📚 Add reduction methods which operate on buffers.

• 📚 Add more math functions like sigmoid, sqrt, rsqrt, etc.

• 📚 Add partial load / store which enable loads and stores that are predicated on a condition.

Week of 2023-01-09

• The / and * markers in function signatures are now parsed and their invariants are checked. We do not yet support keyword arguments yet though, so they aren't very useful.

• Functions now support a new @nodebug_inline decorator. (Historical note: this was later replaced with @alwaysinline("nodebug")).

  Many of the things at the bottom level of the Mojo stack are trivial zero-abstraction wrappers around MLIR things, for example, the + operator on Int or the __bool__ method on Bool itself. These operators need to be force inlined even at -O0, but they have some additional things that we need to wrestle with:

  1. In no case would a user actually want to step into the __bool__ method on Bool or the + method on Int. This would be terrible debugger QoI for unless you're debugging Int itself. We need something like __always_inline__, __nodebug__ attributes that clang uses in headers like xmmintrin.h.

  2. Similarly, these "operators" should be treated by users as primitives: they don't want to know about MLIR or internal implementation details of Int.

  3. These trivial zero abstraction things should be eliminated early in the compiler pipeline so they don't slow down the compiler, bloating out the call graph with trivial leaves. Such thing slows down the elaborator, interferes with basic MLIR things like fold(), bloats out the IR, or bloats out generated debug info.

  4. In a parameter context, we want some of these things to get inlined so they can be simplified by the attribute logic and play more nicely with canonical types. This is just a nice to have thing those of us who have to stare at generated IR.

  The solution to this is a new @nodebug_inline decorator. This decorator causes the parser to force-inline the callee instead of generating a call to it. While doing so, it gives the operations the location of the call itself (that's the "nodebug" part) and strips out let decls that were part of the internal implementation details.

  This is a super-power-user-feature intended for those building the standard library itself, so it is intentionally limited in power and scope: It can only be used on small functions, it doesn't support regions, by-ref, throws, async, etc.

• Separately, we now support an @alwaysInline decorator on functions. This is a general decorator that works on any function, and indicates that the function must be inlined. Unlike @nodebug_inline, this kind of inlining is performed later in the compilation pipeline.

• The __include hack has been removed now that we have proper import support.

• __mlir_op can now get address of l-value:

  You can use magic (((x))) syntax in __mlir_op that forces the x expression to be an lvalue, and yields its address. This provides an escape hatch (isolated off in __mlir_op land) that allows unsafe access to lvalue addresses.

• We now support __rlshift__ and __rtruediv__.

• 📢 The parser now resolves scoped alias references. This allows us to support things like SomeType.someAlias, forward substituting the value. This unblocks use of aliases in types like DType. We'd like to eventually preserve the reference in the AST, but this unblocks library development.

• 📚 Add a now function and Benchmark struct to enable timing and benchmarking.

• 📚 Move more of the computation in NDBuffer from runtime to compile time if possible (e.g. when the dimensions are known at compile time).

Week of 2023-01-02

• 📚 Added the print function which works on Integers and SIMD values.

• The frontend now has a new diagnostic subsystem used by the kgen tool (but not by kgen-translate for tests) that supports source ranges on diagnostics. Before we'd emit an error like:

  x.mojo:13:3: error: invalid call to 'callee': in argument #0, value of type '$F32::F32' cannot be converted to expected type '$int::Int'
    callee(1.0+F32(2.0))
    ^
  x.lit:4:1: note: function declared here
  fn callee(a: Int):
  ^

  x.mojo:13:3: error: invalid call to 'callee': in argument #0, value of type '$F32::F32' cannot be converted to expected type '$int::Int'
    callee(1.0+F32(2.0))
    ^
  x.lit:4:1: note: function declared here
  fn callee(a: Int):
  ^

  now we produce:

  x.mojo:13:3: error: invalid call to 'callee': in argument #0, value of type '$F32::F32' cannot be converted to expected type '$int::Int'
    callee(1.0+F32(2.0))
    ^      ~~~~~~~~~~~~
  x.lit:4:1: note: function declared here
  fn callee(a: Int):
  ^

  x.mojo:13:3: error: invalid call to 'callee': in argument #0, value of type '$F32::F32' cannot be converted to expected type '$int::Int'
    callee(1.0+F32(2.0))
    ^      ~~~~~~~~~~~~
  x.lit:4:1: note: function declared here
  fn callee(a: Int):
  ^

• 📢 Parameter results are now supported in a proper way. They are now forward declared with an alias declaration and then bound in a call with an arrow, e.g.:

  alias a: __mlir_type.index
  alias b: __mlir_type.index
  idx_result_params[xyz * 2 -> a, b]()

  alias a: __mlir_type.index
  alias b: __mlir_type.index
  idx_result_params[xyz * 2 -> a, b]()

• Various minor issues with implicit conversions are fixed. For instances, implicit conversions are now supported in parameter binding contexts and alias declarations with explicit types.

• Doc strings are allowed on functions and structs, but they are currently discarded by the parser.

• 📚 Add a print method!!!

• 📚 Demonstrate a naive matmul in Mojo.

• 📚 Initial work on functions that depend on types (e.g. FPUtils, nan, inf, etc.)

• 📚 Allow one to query hardware properties such as simd_width, os, etc. via TargetInfo at compile time.

December 2022

Week of 2022-12-26

• 📢 You can now call functions in a parameter context! Calling a function in a parameter context will evaluate the function at compile time. The result can then be used as parameter values. For example,

  fn fma(x: Int, y: Int, z: Int) -> Int:
      return a + b * c
  
  fn parameter_call():
      alias nelts = fma(32, 2, 16)
      var x: SIMD[f32, nelts]

  fn fma(x: Int, y: Int, z: Int) -> Int:
      return a + b * c
  
  fn parameter_call():
      alias nelts = fma(32, 2, 16)
      var x: SIMD[f32, nelts]

• You can now disable printing of types in an __mlir_attr substitution by using unary + expression.

• 📢 let declarations are now supported in functions. let declarations are local run-time constant values, which are always rvalues. They complement 'var' decls (which are mutable lvalues) and are the normal thing to use in most cases. They also generate less IR and are always in SSA form when initialized.

  We will want to extend this to support 'let' decls in structs at some point and support lazy initialized 'let' declarations (using dataflow analysis) but that isn't supported yet.

• 📚 Add the NDBuffer struct.

• Happy new year.

Week of 2022-12-19

• 📚 Start of the Standard library:

  1. Added Integer and SIMD structs to bootstrap the standard library.
  2. Added very basic buffer data structure.

• We have basic support for parsing parameter results in function calls! Result parameters are an important Mojo metaprogramming feature. They allow functions to return compile-time constants.

  fn get_preferred_simdwidthof[() -> nelts: Int]():
      return[2]
  
  fn vectorized_function():
      get_preferred_simdwidthof[() -> nelts]()
      var x: SIMD[f32, nelts]

  fn get_preferred_simdwidthof[() -> nelts: Int]():
      return[2]
  
  fn vectorized_function():
      get_preferred_simdwidthof[() -> nelts]()
      var x: SIMD[f32, nelts]

• Types can now be used as parameters of !kgen.mlirtype in many more cases.

• MLIR operations with zero results don't need to specify _type: [] anymore.

• We support parsing triple quoted strings, for writing docstrings for your functions and structs!

• A new __mlir_type[a,b,c] syntax is available for substituting into MLIR types and attributes is available, and the old placeholder approach is removed. This approach has a few advantages beyond what placeholders do:

  1. It's simpler.
  2. It doesn't form the intermediate result with placeholders, which gets rejected by MLIR's semantic analysis, e.g. the complex case couldn't be expressed before.
  3. It provides a simple way to break long attrs/types across multiple lines.

• We now support an @evaluator decorator on functions for KGEN evaluators. This enables specifying user-defined interface evaluators when performing search during compilation.

• 📢 import syntax is now supported!

  This handles packaging imported modules into file ops, enables effective isolation from the other decls. "import" into the desired context is just aliasing decls, with the proper symbols references handle automatically during IR generation. As a starting point, this doesn't handle any notion of packages (as those haven't been sketched out enough).

• 📢 Reversed binary operators (like __radd__) are now looked up and used if the forward version (like __add__) doesn't work for some reason.

• 📢 Implicit conversions are now generally available, e.g. in assign statements, variable initializers etc. There are probably a few more places they should work, but we can start eliminating all the extraneous explicit casts from literals now.

• Happy Holidays

Week of 2022-12-12

• 📢 Function overloading now works. Call resolution filters candidate list according to the actual parameter and value argument specified at the site of the call, diagnosing an error if none of the candidates are viable or if multiple are viable and ambiguous. We also consider implicit conversions in overload look:

  fn foo(x: Int): pass
  fn foo(x: F64): pass
  
  foo(Int(1)) # resolves to the first overload
  foo(1.0)    # resolves to the second overload
  foo(1)      # error: both candidates viable with 1 implicit conversion!

  fn foo(x: Int): pass
  fn foo(x: F64): pass
  
  foo(Int(1)) # resolves to the first overload
  foo(1.0)    # resolves to the second overload
  foo(1)      # error: both candidates viable with 1 implicit conversion!

• The short circuiting binary and and or expressions are now supported.

• Unary operator processing is a lot more robust, now handling the not expression and ~x on Bool.

• 📢 The compiler now generates debug information for use with GDB/LLDB that describes variables and functions.

• The first version of the Mojo Visual Studio Code extension has been released! It supports syntax highlighting for Mojo files.

• The first version of the Bool type has landed in the new Mojo standard library!

• 📢 Implicit conversions are now supported in return statements.

Week of 2022-12-05

• "Discard" patterns are now supported, e.g. _ = foo()

• We now support implicit conversions in function call arguments, e.g. converting an index value to Int automatically. This eliminates a bunch of casts, e.g. the need to say F32(1.0) everywhere.

  This is limited for a few reasons that will be improved later:

  1. We don't support overloading, so lots of types aren't convertible from all the things they should be, e.g. you can't pass "1" to something that expects F32, because F32 can't be created from index.
  2. This doesn't "check to see if we can invoke __new__" it force applies it on a mismatch, which leads to poor QoI.
  3. This doesn't fix things that need radd.

November 2022

Week of 2022-11-28

• 📢 We support the True and False keywords as expressions.

• 📢 A new alias declaration is supported which allows defining local parameter values. This will eventually subsume type aliases and other things as it gets built out.

• 📢 We now have end-to-end execution of Mojo files using the kgen tool! Functions exported with @export can be executed.

• 📢 We have try-except-else and raise statements and implicit error propagation! The error semantics are that def can raise by default, but fn must explicitly declare raising with a @raises decorator. Stub out basic Error type.

• The & sigil for by-ref arguments is now specified after the identifier. Postfix works better for ref and move operators on the expression side because it chains an mentally associates correctly: thing.method().result^. We don't do that yet, but align param decl syntax to it so that things won't be odd looking when we do. In practice this looks like:

  def mutate_argument(a&: index):
      a = 25

  def mutate_argument(a&: index):
      a = 25

Week of 2022-11-21

• 📢 The magic index type is gone. Long live __mlir_type.index.

• Implement parameter substitution into parametric __mlir_type decls. This allows us to define parametric opaque MLIR types with exposed parameters using a new "placeholder" attribute. This allows us to expose the power of the KGEN type parametric system directly into Mojo.

• 📢 Fully-parametric custom types can now be defined and work in Mojo, bringing together a lot of the recent work. We can write the SIMD type directly as a wrapper around the KGEN type, for example:

  struct SIMD[dt: __mlir_type.`!kgen.dtype`, nelts: __mlir_type.index]:
      var value:
        __mlir_type.`!pop.simd<#lit<placeholder index>,
                               #lit<placeholder !kgen.dtype>>`[nelts, dt]
  
      fn __add__(self, rhs: SIMD[dt, nelts]) -> SIMD[dt, nelts]:
          return __mlir_op.`pop.add`(self.value, rhs.value)

  struct SIMD[dt: __mlir_type.`!kgen.dtype`, nelts: __mlir_type.index]:
      var value:
        __mlir_type.`!pop.simd<#lit<placeholder index>,
                               #lit<placeholder !kgen.dtype>>`[nelts, dt]
  
      fn __add__(self, rhs: SIMD[dt, nelts]) -> SIMD[dt, nelts]:
          return __mlir_op.`pop.add`(self.value, rhs.value)

Week of 2022-11-14

• 📢 Implement a magic __mlir_type declaration that can be used to access any MLIR type. E.g. __mlir_type.f64.

• 📢 Add an fn declaration. These are like def declarations, but are more strict in a few ways: they require type annotations on arguments, don't allow implicit variable declarations in their body, and make their arguments rvalues instead of lvalues.

• Implemented Swift-style backtick identifiers, which are useful for code migration where names may collide with new keywords.

• 📢 A new __include directive has been added that performs source-level textual includes. This is temporary until we have an import model.

• Implement IR generation for arithmetic operators like + and * in terms of the __add__ and __mul__ methods.

• 📢 Added support for break and continue statements, as well as early returns inside loops and conditionals!

• 📢 Implemented augmented assignment operators, like += and @=.

• 📢 Mojo now has access to generating any MLIR operations (without regions) with a new __mlir_op magic declaration. We can start to build out the language's builtin types with this:

  struct Int:
      var value: __mlir_type.index
  
      fn __add__(self, rhs: Int) -> Int:
          return __mlir_op.`index.add`(self.value, rhs.value)

  struct Int:
      var value: __mlir_type.index
  
      fn __add__(self, rhs: Int) -> Int:
          return __mlir_op.`index.add`(self.value, rhs.value)

  Attributes can be attached to the declaration with subscript [] syntax, and an explicit result type can be specified with a special _type attribute if it cannot be inferred. Attributes can be accessed via the __mlir_attr magic decl:

  __mlir_op.`index.cmp`[
      _type: __mlir_type.i1,
      pred: __mlir_attr.`#index<cmp_predicate slt>`
  ](lhs, rhs)

  __mlir_op.`index.cmp`[
      _type: __mlir_type.i1,
      pred: __mlir_attr.`#index<cmp_predicate slt>`
  ](lhs, rhs)

• Improved diagnostics emissions with ranges! Now errors highlight the whole section of code and not just the first character.

Week of 2022-11-07

• Implemented the @interface and @implements decorators, which provide access to KGEN generator interfaces. A function marked as an @interface has no body, but it can be implemented by multiple other functions.

  @interface
  def add(lhs: index, rhs: index):
  
  @implements(add)
  def normal_add(lhs: index, rhs: index) -> index:
      return lhs + rhs
  
  @implements(add)
  def slow_add(lhs: index, rhs: index) -> index:
      wait(1000)
      return normal_add(lhs, rhs)

  @interface
  def add(lhs: index, rhs: index):
  
  @implements(add)
  def normal_add(lhs: index, rhs: index) -> index:
      return lhs + rhs
  
  @implements(add)
  def slow_add(lhs: index, rhs: index) -> index:
      wait(1000)
      return normal_add(lhs, rhs)

• 📢 Support for static struct methods and initializer syntax has been added. Initializing a struct with Foo() calls an implicitly static __new__ method. This method should be used instead of __init__ inside structs.

  struct Foo:
      var value: index
  
      def __new__() -> Foo:
          var result: Foo
          result.value = Foo.return_a_number() # static method!
          return result
  
      @staticmethod
      def return_a_number() -> index:
          return 42

  struct Foo:
      var value: index
  
      def __new__() -> Foo:
          var result: Foo
          result.value = Foo.return_a_number() # static method!
          return result
  
      @staticmethod
      def return_a_number() -> index:
          return 42

• 📢 Full by-ref argument support. It's now possible to define in-place operators like __iadd__ and functions like swap(x, y) correctly.

• 📢 Implemented support for field extract from rvalues, like x.value where x is not an lvalue (var declaration or by-ref function argument).

October 2022

Week of 2022-10-31

• Revised return handling so that a return statement with no expression is syntax sugar for return None. This enables early exits in functions that implicitly return None to be cleaner:

  def just_return():
      return

  def just_return():
      return

• Added support for parsing more expressions: if-else, bitwise operators, shift operators, comparisons, floor division, remainder, and matmul.

• 📢 The type of the self argument can now be omitted on member methods.

Week of 2022-10-24

• Added parser support for right-associativity and unary ops, like the power operator a ** b ** c and negation operator -a.

• Add support for &expr in Mojo, which allows denoting a by-ref argument in functions. This is required because the self type of a struct method is implicitly a pointer.

• Implemented support for parametric function declarations, such as:

  struct SIMD[dt: DType, width: index]:
      fn struct_method(self: &SIMD[dt, width]):
          pass
  
  def fancy_add[dt: DType, width: index](
      lhs: SIMD[dt, width], rhs: SIMD[dt, width]) -> index:
    return width

  struct SIMD[dt: DType, width: index]:
      fn struct_method(self: &SIMD[dt, width]):
          pass
  
  def fancy_add[dt: DType, width: index](
      lhs: SIMD[dt, width], rhs: SIMD[dt, width]) -> index:
    return width

Week of 2022-10-17

• Added explicit variable declarations with var, for declaring variables both inside functions and structs, with support for type references. Added index as a temporary built-in type.

  def foo(lhs: index, rhs: index) -> index:
      var result: index = lhs + rhs
      return result

  def foo(lhs: index, rhs: index) -> index:
      var result: index = lhs + rhs
      return result

• Implemented support for parsing struct declarations and references to type declarations in functions! In def, the type can be omitted to signal an object type.

  struct Foo:
      var member: index
  
  def bar(x: Foo, obj) -> index:
      return x.member

  struct Foo:
      var member: index
  
  def bar(x: Foo, obj) -> index:
      return x.member

• Implemented parser support for if statements and while loops!

  def if_stmt(c: index, a: index, b: index) -> index:
      var result: index = 0
      if c:
          result = a
      else:
          result = b
      return result
  
  def while_stmt(init: index):
      while init > 1:
          init = init - 1

  def if_stmt(c: index, a: index, b: index) -> index:
      var result: index = 0
      if c:
          result = a
      else:
          result = b
      return result
  
  def while_stmt(init: index):
      while init > 1:
          init = init - 1

• Significantly improved error emission and handling, allowing the parser to emit multiple errors while parsing a file.

Week of 2022-10-10

• Added support for parsing integer, float, and string literals.

• Implemented parser support for function input parameters and results. You can now write parametric functions like,

  def foo[param: Int](arg: Int) -> Int:
      result = param + arg
      return result

  def foo[param: Int](arg: Int) -> Int:
      result = param + arg
      return result

Week of 2022-10-03

• Added some basic parser scaffolding and initial parser productions, including trivial expressions and assignment parser productions.

• Implemented basic scope handling and function IR generation, with support for forward declarations. Simple functions like,

  def foo(x: Int):

  def foo(x: Int):

  Now parse! But all argument types are hard-coded to the MLIR index type.

• Added IR emission for simple arithmetic expressions on builtin types, like x + y.

September 2022

Week of 2022-09-26

• Mojo's first patch to add a lexer was Sep 27, 2022.

• Settled on [] for Mojo generics instead of <>. Square brackets are consistent with Python generics and don't have the less than ambiguity other languages have.

Was this page helpful?

Thank you! We'll create more content like this.

Thank you for helping us improve!

😔 What went wrong?

Some code doesn’t work

It includes inaccurate information

It's missing information I need

It was difficult to understand

Other

Submit